Rapid Effects of Marine Reserves via Larval Dispersal

Marine reserves have been advocated worldwide as conservation and fishery management tools. It is argued that they can protect ecosystems and also benefit fisheries via density-dependent spillover of adults and enhanced larval dispersal into fishing areas. However, while evidence has shown that marine reserves can meet conservation targets, their effects on fisheries are less understood. In particular, the basic question of if and over what temporal and spatial scales reserves can benefit fished populations via larval dispersal remains unanswered. We tested predictions of a larval transport model for a marine reserve network in the Gulf of California, Mexico, via field oceanography and repeated density counts of recently settled juvenile commercial mollusks before and after reserve establishment. We show that local retention of larvae within a reserve network can take place with enhanced, but spatially-explicit, recruitment to local fisheries. Enhancement occurred rapidly (2 yrs), with up to a three-fold increase in density of juveniles found in fished areas at the downstream edge of the reserve network, but other fishing areas within the network were unaffected. These findings were consistent with our model predictions. Our findings underscore the potential benefits of protecting larval sources and show that enhancement in recruitment can be manifested rapidly. However, benefits can be markedly variable within a local seascape. Hence, effects of marine reserve networks, positive or negative, may be overlooked when only focusing on overall responses and not considering finer spatially-explicit responses within a reserve network and its adjacent fishing grounds. Our results therefore call for future research on marine reserves that addresses this variability in order to help frame appropriate scenarios for the spatial management scales of interest.     

Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management

Abstract Establishing permanent ‘no-take’ marine reserves, areas where fishing and all other extractive activities are prohibited, is an attractive but under-utilized tool for fisheries management. Marine reserves could potentially deal with many fishery problems that are not effectively addressed by other traditional management measures; they also offer numerous social, economic, and scientific benefits not directly related to fisheries. Limited but growing research has shown beneficial biological and economic effects of marine reserves on fisheries. More research is needed, especially at larger scales, to determine the ideal marine reserve size, number and location necessary to optimize fisheries productivity and resource conservation. Sufficient evidence is available to justify the expanded use of marine reserves in an adaptive approach to fisheries management.     

Marine Reserves: from Beverton and Holt to the Present

The idea of using marine reserves, where all fishing is banned is not new to fisheries management. It was first formally considered by Beverton and Holt but rejected in favour of approaches such as fleet and gear control. Since that analysis, many fisheries have collapsed worldwide, illustrating the vulnerability of fishery resources and the ineffectiveness of these approaches. Empirical data and modelling suggest that marine reserves would generally increase yields, especially at the high fishing mortality that occurs in most fisheries. However, the most interesting feature of reserves is their ability to provide resilience to overexploitation, thereby reducing the risk of stock collapse. Benefits from reserves come from the increase in biomass and individual size within them, resulting in adult migration and/or larval dispersal that would replenish fishing grounds. The use of marine reserves in managing fisheries necessitates a thorough understanding of critical habitat requirements, fish movement, fish behaviour, the relations between subpopulations and the critical density effect for larval dispersal. When properly designed, and coupled with other management practices, reserves may provide a better insurance against uncertainties in stock assessment, fishing control and management by protecting a part of the population from exploitation. This strategy can be used for both sedentary and migratory species.     

Non-management of Natural Resources: The Case of Inland Fisheries in the Mayan Zone,Quintana Roo,México

This study explores the management of inland fisheries on common lands (ejidos) within the Mayan Zone of Quintana Roo, Mexico. Qualitative survey data are used to examine whether there are (a) ongoing fishery conservation activities; (b) local caretakers of fishing sites; (c) restrictions on where fishing can take place; and (d) particular groups of individuals who lack the right to fish within the ejidos. Results indicate that in contrast to other local resources, fisheries in the ejidos have less defined use rights, being viewed as largely “open access”. In particular, most feel that outsiders can fish in an ejido if they abide by local rules (notably not damaging the local water bodies, asking consent to fish, and having a friend or relative in the community). However, there are within-community differences in views concerning management and conservation, with those more dependent on fishing being more likely to support exclusion of outsiders.     

On the Optimal Size of Marine Reserves

The excessive and unsustainable exploitation of our marine resources has led to the promotion of marine reserves as a fisheries management tool. Marine reserves, areas in which fishing is restricted or prohibited, can offer opportunities for the recovery of exploited stock and fishery enhancement. This study examines the impact of the creation of marine protected areas, from both economic and biological perspectives. The consequences of reserve establishment on the long-run equilibrium fish biomass and fishery catch levels are evaluated. We include reserve size as control variable to maximize catch at equilibrium. A continuous time model is used to simulate the effects of reserve size on fishing catch. Fish movements between the sites is assumed to take place at a faster time scale than the variation of the stock and the change of the fleet size. We take advantage of these two time scales to derive a reduced model governing the dynamics of the total fish stock and the fishing effort. Simulation results suggest that the establishment of a protected marine reserve will always lead to an increase in total fish biomass, an optimal size of a marine reserve can achieve to maximize the catch at equilibrium.     

When Is Spillover from Marine Reserves Likely to Benefit Fisheries?

The net movement of individuals from marine reserves (also known as no-take marine protected areas) to the remaining fishing grounds is known as spillover and is frequently used to promote reserves to fishers on the grounds that it will benefit fisheries. Here we consider how mismanaged a fishery must be before spillover from a reserve is able to provide a net benefit for a fishery. For our model fishery, density of the species being harvested becomes higher in the reserve than in the fished area but the reduction in the density and yield of the fished area was such that the net effect of the closure was negative, except when the fishery was mismanaged. The extent to which effort had to exceed traditional management targets before reserves led to a spillover benefit varied with rates of growth and movement of the model species. In general, for well-managed fisheries, the loss of yield from the use of reserves was less for species with greater movement and slower growth. The spillover benefit became more pronounced with increasing mis-management of the stocks remaining available to the fishery. This model-based result is consistent with the literature of field-based research where a spillover benefit from reserves has only been detected when the fishery is highly depleted, often where traditional fisheries management controls are absent. We conclude that reserves in jurisdictions with well-managed fisheries are unlikely to provide a net spillover benefit.     

An Overview of Fishing Rights

Coastal state management of marine harvests within 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones was a new and innovative process during the period from the late 1970s through the 1980s. The spread of conservation-focused harvest management was a key step in the evolution of fishing rights, followed in some nations by a second step of creating more exclusive, individual or group fishing rights. The three main forms of more exclusive fishing rights – limited entry permits, individual fishing quotas (IFQs), and local community-based or co-operative harvesting – vary widely in content and detail. But, when successful, they all increase the economic efficiency of fisheries, and they reshape the economic and political landscape of fisheries. All three types, but particularly IFQs, may initiate radical changes in the economic organization of the fishery, ultimately changing who fishes, where and when they fish, the products sold, the balance of power among industry sectors, incentives to support conservation, the size of incomes from fishing, and the location of shore-side economic activity. Changes of this sort are bound to provoke controversy. The controversies over fishing rights take three forms: disagreements over the meaning and intent of fishing rights, disputes over the distribution of rights and associated economic gain, and concern for disruptions imposed on people who are dependent on the “old order”. This paper provides a short review of the underlying concepts, rights systems, and current controversies concerning fishing rights.     

Density dependence and the economic efficacy of marine reserves

Predictions on the efficacy of marine reserves for benefiting fisheries differ in large part due to considerations of models of either intra- or inter-cohort population density regulating fish recruitment. Here, I consider both processes acting on recruitment and show using a bioeconomic model how for many fisheries density dependent recruitment dynamics interact with harvest costs to influence fishery profit with reserves. Reserves consolidate fishing effort, favoring fisheries that can profitably harvest low-density stocks of species where adult density mediates recruitment. Conversely, proportion coastline in reserves that maximizes profit, and relative improvement in profit from reserves over conventional management, decline with increasing harvest costs and the relative importance of intra-cohort density dependence. Reserves never increase profit when harvest cost is high, regardless of density dependent recruitment dynamics. I quantitatively synthesize diverse results in the literature, show disproportionate effects on the economic performance of reserves from considering only inter- or intra-cohort density dependence, and highlight fish population and fishery dynamics predicted to be complementary to reserve management. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Applying Fishers' ecological knowledge to construct past and future lobster stocks in the Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile

Over-exploited fisheries are a common feature of the modern world and a range of solutions including area closures (marine reserves; MRs), effort reduction, gear changes, ecosystem-based management, incentives and co-management have been suggested as techniques to rebuild over-fished populations. Historic accounts of lobster (Jasus frontalis) on the Chilean Juan Fernández Archipelago indicate a high abundance at all depths (intertidal to approximately 165 m), but presently lobsters are found almost exclusively in deeper regions of their natural distribution. Fishers' ecological knowledge (FEK) tells a story of serial depletion in lobster abundance at fishing grounds located closest to the fishing port with an associated decline in catch per unit effort (CPUE) throughout recent history. We have re-constructed baselines of lobster biomass throughout human history on the archipelago using historic data, the fishery catch record and FEK to permit examination of the potential effects of MRs, effort reduction and co-management (stewardship of catch) to restore stocks. We employed a bioeconomic model using FEK, fishery catch and effort data, underwater survey information, predicted population growth and response to MR protection (no-take) to explore different management strategies and their trade-offs to restore stocks and improve catches. Our findings indicate that increased stewardship of catch coupled with 30% area closure (MR) provides the best option to reconstruct historic baselines. Based on model predictions, continued exploitation under the current management scheme is highly influenced by annual fluctuations and unsustainable. We propose a community-based co-management program to implement a MR in order to rebuild the lobster population while also providing conservation protection for marine species endemic to the Archipelago.     

Critical science gaps impede use of no-take fishery reserves

As well as serving valuable biodiversity conservation roles, functioning no-take fishery reserves protect a portion of the fishery stock as insurance against future over-fishing. So long as there is adequate compliance by the fishing community, it is likely that they will also sustain and even enhance fishery yields in the surrounding area. However, there are significant gaps in scientific knowledge that must be filled if no-take reserves are to be used effectively as fishery management tools. Unfortunately, these gaps are being glossed over by some uncritical advocacy. Here, we review the science, identify the most crucial gaps, and suggest ways to fill them, so that a promising management tool can help meet the growing challenges faced by coastal marine fisheries.     

Rio Plus Ten: The Evolution of International Marine Fisheries Governance

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro was a seminal event that addressed the interplay of economic development and human use of natural resources with the need for protection of the natural environment. The general principles embodied in the Rio Declaration and the provisions included in the comprehensive Agenda 21 expressed the expectations of the international community and set the stage for national and international policy and legal developments in a host of different areas, including the governance of the ocean's living resources. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 focused on the world's oceans and seas and crystallized growing world community concern with problems such as unregulated fishing, fishing vessel reflagging, overcapitalization of the fishing industry, inadequate fisheries enforcement, and insufficient cooperation among states. Further, the documentation of UNCED evidenced interest in new governance frameworks and concepts such as ecosystem-based management and precaution. In retrospect, it is clear that the ideas discussed at Rio have been important and have been implemented by a variety of governments and international organizations as they exercise their responsibilities for fisheries management. This article examines the principles and approaches suggested by UNCED as they relate to world fisheries and considers how they have been reflected in global fishery agreements such as the FAO Compliance Agreement and the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, in the work of international fishery bodies such as the FAO Committee on Fisheries, and in the efforts of a number of regional fishery commissions. It also addresses the significance and ramifications of changes suggested by Agenda 21 for the future conduct and management of world marine fisheries.     

The mangrove-based coastal and nearshore fisheries of Bangladesh: ecology,exploitation and management

The mangrove forest of Bangladesh, the largest continuous mangrove forest of the world, is one of the most important coastal features of the country. The existence of the mangrove has increased the values of other coastal and marine resources such as the coastal and marine fisheries by increasing productivity and supporting a wide biological diversity. The artisanal fishery, which is highly influenced by mangroves, has been contributing 85–95% of the total coastal and marine catch of Bangladesh. The mangrove also supports offshore and deep sea fisheries by playing a significant role as nursery ground for many deep sea fishes and shrimps including the giant tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) which is the major species of the industrial bottom trawl fishery of Bangladesh. The mangrove also contributes significantly in shrimp farming which has been the most significant export-oriented industry since the 1970s. However, the mangrove fisheries have been under intensive pressure from deleterious fishing activities and deliberate aquaculture development by destructing mangrove habitats. The impacts of mangrove have been reflected in the contribution of artisanal fishery catch that has been in a continuous decline since the 1980s. Shrimp farming has been the most destructive contributor to mangrove destruction with a corresponding loss of biological resources particularly the wild shrimp fishery. This paper reviews different aspects of the mangrove fisheries of Bangladesh and discusses the impacts of different fisheries. The paper identifies the importance of reviewing, amending and/or replacing the traditional management approaches by the new management techniques such as habitat restoration and stock enhancement in the natural environment; the paper also identifies the need for research findings in formulating and implementing new management approaches.     

Management strategies for sustainable invertebrate fisheries in coastal ecosystems of Galicia (NW Spain)

Artisanal coastal invertebrate fisheries in Galicia are socio-economically important and ecologically relevant. Their management, however, has been based on models of fish population dynamics appropriate for highly mobile demersal or pelagic resources and for industrial fisheries. These management systems focus on regulating fishing effort, but in coastal ecosystems activities that change or destruct key habitats may have a greater effect on population abundance than does fishing mortality. The Golfo Artabro was analysed as a representative example of a coastal ecosystem in Galicia, and the spider crab Maja squinado used as a model of an exploited coastal invertebrate, for which shallow coastal areas are key habitats for juvenile stages. The commercial legal gillnet fishery for the spider crab harvests adults during their reproductive migrations to deep waters and in their wintering habitats. Illegal fisheries operate in shallow waters. The annual rate of exploitation is >90%, and <10% of the primiparous females reproduce effectively at least once. A simple spatially-explicit cohort model was constructed to simulate the population dynamics of spider crab females. Yield- and egg-per-recruit analyses corresponding to different exploitation regimes were performed to compare management policies directed to control the fishing effort or to protect key habitats. It was found that the protection of juvenile habitats could allow increases in yield and reproductive effort higher than in the present system, with such protection based in the control of the fishing effort of the legal fishery. Additionally, there is an urgent need for alternative research and management strategies in artisanal coastal fisheries based on the implementation of a system of territorial use rights for fishers, the integration of the fishers into assessment and management processes, and the protection of key habitats (marine reserves) as a basic tool for the regulation of the fisheries.     

Management histories of Sumilon and Apo Marine Reserves, Philippines, and their influence on national marine resource policy

 The histories of management of the Sumilon and Apo marine reserves in the Philippines provide a stark contrast. Both began with marine conservation and education programs at the community level, initiated by the Marine Laboratory of Silliman University in 1973 at Sumilon, and in 1976 at Apo. At both islands community support for the “no take” reserve concept evolved gradually, via perceived benefits of increased local fish yields and income from tourism. However, Sumilon reserve has been fished down twice (in 1984,1992), and was still being fished in December 1998. Apo reserve has been protected from fishing successfully for 16 y (1982–1998). The management histories of these two marine reserves are the longest and most detailed available for coral reefs. Scientific data spanning 1976–1993 for Sumilon and 1980–1993 for Apo have provided some of the best available evidence of the utility of such reserves as management tools in coral reef fisheries. At Sumilon, collapse of reserve protection in 1984, after 9.5 y of restrictions on fishing, led to significant declines in reef fisheries yields in areas adjacent to the reserve. At Apo, continuous protection from 1982 to 1993 has led to consistent build up of fish in the reserve and some evidence that local fish yields have increased. The unique time series of scientific data obtained from Sumilon and Apo islands are the result of their distinct management histories. The greater success of management at Apo was due to community support for the reserve concept being actively maintained for the past 16 y. Socio-political factors caused the level of community support for the Sumilon reserve to wax and wane over this period. Both case histories have had a profound effect on marine resource management in the Philippines. As marine reserve models they had substantial influence on the design of the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS). Policy now encourages co-management between the National government and local communities, with a strong emphasis on decentralization of decision making and recognition of local territorial use rights in fisheries. Accepted: 14 May 1999     

An interdisciplinary evaluation of fishery production systems off the state of Pará in North Brazil

The performance of 20 fishery production systems off the state of Pará in the northern region of Brazil was compared using the 'RAPFISH' methodology, with 57 identified attributes distributed among five evaluation fields: economics, sociology, ecology, technology and politics. The results indicated the existence of three large groups of fishery sectors: (i) industrial (red snapper with traps, the Laulao catfish, shrimp trawl) and semi-industrial (lobster) fisheries; (ii) large-scale artisanal fisheries (acoupa weakfish, red snapper with lines, king mackerel, Spanish mackerel, coco sea catfish); and (iii) small-scale artisanal fisheries (shellfish, crab, estuarine longline, fish traps, etc.). While the industrial and large-scale artisanal systems demonstrated greater sustainability from an economic and social standpoint, small-scale fisheries appeared to be more ecologically sustainable. Based on the results, a reduction in industrial fishing efforts is recommended, along with the establishment of licensing quotas for fishing vessels, as well as an increased investment in research on proper guidance and management of the semi-industrial and large-scale artisanal fisheries sectors. For small-scale artisanal fisheries, economic incentives are suggested for the aggregate value of the products and to assist fishers in the development of an appropriate social organization. Finally, it is believed that a greater stakeholder involvement in the decision-making process would improve management actions for all modalities.     

Key aspects of the biology,fisheries and management of Coral grouper

Coral grouper (genus Plectropomus), or coral trout, are members of the grouper family (Epinephelidae) and are one of the largest and most conspicuous predatory fishes on Indo-Pacific coral reefs. They are highly-prized food fishes that are targeted by subsistence, artisanal, commercial and recreational fisheries throughout their geographic range. Plectropomus have broadly similar diets and habitat requirements to other tropical groupers, but typically have faster growth and higher natural mortality rates. Although these characteristics are expected to increase population turnover and reduce innate vulnerability to environmental and anthropogenic impacts relative to other groupers, many Plectropomus populations are in decline due to the combined effects of overfishing and habitat degradation. In many locations, stock depletion from uncontrolled fishing, particularly at spawning aggregation sites, has resulted in local fishery collapse. Therefore, improved management of wild populations is urgently required to ensure conservation and sustainable fisheries of Plectropomus. Where possible, a combination of no-take marine reserves, market-based management approaches, and allocation or resurrection of property rights systems are recommended to complement conventional fishery management actions that limit catch and effort. Additional investment in aquaculture propagation is also needed to reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks and support management initiatives. This global synthesis of information pertaining to the biology, fisheries and management of Plectropomus will assist in guiding future management actions that are attempting to address a range of stressors including fishing, reef habitat degradation, and the escalating effects of climate change.     

Fisheries and the evolution of resource management on the lower Amazon floodplain

Traditionally, the ribeirinhoeconomy has been based on strategies of multiple resource use including agriculture, fishing, and small-scale stock raising. In the last two decades though, ribeirinhostrategies of resource management have undergone major changes due to the decline of jute production (the principal cash crop), and the intensification of the commercial fisheries. As a result of these trends, there has been a shift of ribeirinholabor from agriculture to commercial fishing. Today, the diversity which once characterized ribeirinhosubsistence strategies is disappearing, and fishing has become the primary economic activity for the great majority of varzeafamilies. As pressure on varzeafisheries has increased, ribeirinhocommunities have attempted to assert control over local varzealakes and exclude fishermen from outside the community. In a number of cases, ribeirinhocommunities have closed lakes to outsiders and established informal lake reserves under local community management. These lake reserves are a promising strategy for managing lake fisheries on a sustainable basis.     

Evidence of artisanal fishing impacts and depth refuge in assemblages of Fijian reef fish

Protection from fishing generally results in an increase in the abundance and biomass of species targeted by fisheries within marine reserve boundaries. Natural refuges such as depth may also protect such species, yet few studies in the Indo Pacific have investigated the effects of depth concomitant with marine reserves. We studied the effects of artisanal fishing and depth on reef fish assemblages in the Kubulau District of Vanua Levu Island, Fiji, using baited remote underwater stereo-video systems. Video samples were collected from shallow (5–8 m) and deep (25–30 m) sites inside and outside of a large old marine reserve (60.6 km², 13 years old) and a small new marine reserve (4.25 km², 4 years old). Species richness tended to be greater in the shallow waters of the large old reserve when compared to fished areas. In the deeper waters, species richness appeared to be comparable. The difference in shallow waters was driven by species targeted by fisheries, indicative of a depth refuge effect. In contrast, differences in the abundance composition of the fish assemblage existed between protected and fished areas for deep sites, but not shallow. Fish species targeted by local fisheries were 89% more abundant inside the large old reserve than surrounding fished areas, while non-targeted species were comparable. We observed no difference in the species richness or abundance of species targeted by fisheries inside and outside of the small new reserve. This study suggests that artisanal fishing impacts on the abundance and species richness of coral reef fish assemblages and effects of protection are more apparent with large reserves that have been established for a long period of time. Observed effects of protection also vary with depth, highlighting the importance of explicitly incorporating multiple depth strata in studies of marine reserves.     

More than One Bag for the World Fishery Crisis and Keys for Co-management Successes in Selected Artisanal Latin American Shellfisheries

Global concerns about the depletion of marine stocks have been widely documented in industrial fisheries. However, small-scale artisanal fisheries constitute a second component for the world fishery crisis, normally ignored or erroneously lumped into the industrial component. In this paper we first present a brief comparison between industrial and artisanal fisheries, highlighting the differences between them and the differential feasibility for implementing management options. We propose that industrial and artisanal fishery problems have to be treated separately and thus cannot be lumped into a single “fishing bag”. Among artisanal fisheries, we focus on coastal benthic shellfisheries, highlighting that their sedentary or sessile nature make them amenable to implement spatially-explicit management tools such as rotation of areas and territorial user rights (TURFs). Then, using long-term catch trends and selected examples, we demonstrate the power and validity of co-management for some Latin American shellfisheries, notably in Chile and Mexico, and stress the need to institutionalize the existent fishery knowledge. Several idiosyncratic properties of co-management in our Latin American examples have been useful to sustain the resources over time, including: (a) allocations of TURFs, (b) Community Fishery Quotas, which may be sub-allocated to families, (c) community-based and family-oriented sociological and organizational context of co-management, which may drive short and long-term market forces.