MORPHOLOGY AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS OF CAULERPA (CHLOROPHYTA) IN RELATION TO GROWTH FORM

Morphological and photosynthetic performance were analyzed in species of the genus Caulerpa from an exposed coral reef and a sheltered reef lagoon. Morphological characters, such as distance between modules, number of modules, stolon branches and rhizoid clusters per centimeter of stolon, indicated a uniformity among species within a specific habitat. "Guerilla," or diffusive, growth forms were characteristic for lagoon species and "phalanx," or compact, growth forms for reef species. Differences in photosynthesis were found between Caulerpa species. Sun-tolerant species were found on the reef, and both sun- and shade-tolerant species were present in the lagoon. In the lagoon, shade-tolerant species, such as C. lanuginosa J. Agardh, were found growing in the understory, and sun-tolerant species, such as C. paspaloides (Bory) Greville, formed the canopy. C. cupressoides (West in Vahl) C. Agardh was the only species found in both environments; it showed higher photosynthetic rates and a compressed morphology when growing on the reef and lower photosynthetic rates and expanded morphology for lagoonal ramets. These results suggest that C. cupressoides possesses a broad phenotypic ability to acclimate to lagoonal and reef settings in comparison to other Caulerpa species, enhancing its ecological success in this particular system.     

樟科植物花粉形态研究

樟科植物为我国南方常绿阔叶林重要组成成分,我国约有20属420余种。过去对于樟科花粉形态的研究仅限于在光学显微镜下进行观察记载,以台湾学者王仁礼的研究最为全面,共记载了台湾产14属40余种的花粉形态。本文作者以国产樟科为主,应用扫描电镜及光学显微镜对该科花粉形态进行了更为全面系统的研究,共观察记载了22属150余种,对各属的花粉形态特征均进行了描述;首次报道了樟科花粉有小穿孔的存在,并依据花粉的形状、外壁纹饰及小穿孔存在与否将樟科花粉划分为7个类型,即:1．厚壳桂型(Cryptocarya,Neocimamomum);2．檬果樟型(Caryodaphnopsis);3．木姜子型(Litsea,Lindera,Neolitsea);4．月桂型(Laurus);5．鳄梨型(Persea,Machilus,Syndiclis,Nothaphoebe, Beilschemiedia,Phoebe,Alseodaphne,Octea);6．檫木型(Sassafras,Cinnamomum,Umbellularia,Actinodaphne,Dehaasia);7．无根藤型(Cassytha)。文中还讨论了樟科花粉的多样性、有关属之间的亲缘关系和分类问题以及同邻近的肉豆蔻科、莲叶桐科的关系。     

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE LEAF OF COLEUS BLUMEI (LAMIACEAE)

Leaves of the Princeton and a variegated clone of Coleus blumei Benth. were examined with the light microscope to determine the course of their vasculature and the spatial relationship between the mesophyll, bundle sheath, and vascular tissues. In Princeton clone leaves two leaf traces enter the petiole at the node and quickly branch to form an arc of bundles which undergo further divisions as well as fusions in the distal half of the petiole. The anastomosing arc of bundles reaches its greatest complexity in the base of the midvein, where its lateral-most bundles unite and diverge outward to form secondary veins. As the midvein bundles continue acropetally, they gradually fuse more and divide less until only a single bundle remains, from which secondaries and smaller veins branch. Major (ribbed) veins include not only the midvein and secondaries but also tertiary and quaternary veins. Decreasing vein size is accompanied by increasing direct contact between vascular and photosynthetic tissues. Minor veins, which make up 86% of the total vein length, are completely surrounded by photosynthetic bundle sheaths and mesophyll consisting of palisade and spongy parenchyma. Statoliths occur in a layer of cells just outside the phloem of the petiole-midrib axis and secondary veins. Functional hydathodes are present at the apices of the marginal teeth. The overall organization of tissues in variegated leaves differs little in either the green or albuminous areas from corresponding (but always green) regions of Princeton leaves. Chloroplasts are lacking in mesophyll, bundle-sheath, and most guard cells of the albuminous region but are present in guard cells which are within 1 mm of green areas.     

MORPHOLOGY AND VASCULATURE OF THE LEAF OF POTATO (SOLANUM TUBEROSUM)

The leaf and stem of the potato plant (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Russet Burbank) were studied by light microscopy to determine their morphology and vasculature; scanning electron microscopy provided supplemental information on the leaf's morphology. The morphology of the basal leaves of the potato shoot is quite variable, ranging from simple to pinnately compound. The upper leaves of the shoot are more uniform, being odd pinnate with three major pairs of lateral leaflets and a number of folioles. The primary vascular system of the stem is comprised of six bundles, three large and three small ones. The three large bundles form a highly interconnected system through a repeated series of branchings and arch-producing mergers. Two of the three large bundles give rise to short, lateral leaf traces at each node. Each of the small bundles in the stem is actually a median leaf trace which extends three internodes before diverging into a leaf. The three leaf traces enter the petiole through a single gap; thus the nodel anatomy is three-trace unilacunar. Upon entering the petiole, each of the laterals splits into an upper and a lower lateral. Whereas the upper laterals diverge entirely into the first pair of leaflets, the lower laterals feed all of the lateral leaflets through a series of bifurcations. Prior to their entering the terminal leaflet, the lower laterals converge on the median bundle to form a single vascular crescent which progresses acropetally into the terminal leaflet as the midvein, or primary vein. In the midrib, portions of the midvein diverge outward and continue as secondaries to the margin on either side of the lamina. Near the tip of the terminal leaflet, the midvein consists of a single vascular bundle which is a continuation of the median bundle. Six to seven orders of veins occur in the terminal leaflet.     

LEAF DEVELOPMENT AND PRIMARY VASCULAR ORGANIZATION IN SHOOTS OF ANISOPHYLLEA DISTICH A

Anisophyllea disticha is characterized by strong shoot dimorphism. Orthotropic shoots with helically arranged scale leaves produce tiers of plagiotropic shoots, while plagiotropic shoots are anisophyllous and bear dorsal scale and ventral foliage leaves arranged in a unique tetrastichous system. In this study we compare the patterns of leaf development and primary vascular organization in the two types of shoots. Orthotropic shoots have an open vascular system with five sympodia. Expansion of orthotropic shoot scale leaves occurs from P1 to P10–12, and leaf tissues mature precociously. Plagiotropic shoots have a closed vascular system with six sympodia. Leaves in ventral and dorsal orthostichies do not differ significantly in size until ca. P15, but ventral leaves are distinct histologically from the second node in an orthostichy, P4–6. Ventral foliage leaves have a diffuse plate meristem, and leaf expansion continues until ca. P30. Differentiation of ventral and dorsal leaf trace procambium parallels the divergent patterns of leaf expansion. These observations demonstrate the strong correlation among shoot symmetry, leaf development, and vascular differentiation within dimorphic shoots of one species.     

THE INFLUENCE OF WATER STRESS ON STEM AND LEAF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN GLYCINE MAX AND SPARTEUM JUNCEUM (LEGUMINOSAE)

Stem and leaf photosynthesis were measured in Glycine max var. essex (soybean) and Sparteum junceum (Spanish broom). The significance of stem photosynthesis to whole plant growth was evaluated by blocking stem photosynthesis with black straw sections. The growth of S. junceum was reduced by 18% when black straws were used in comparison to clear straws. The whole plant growth of G. max was not influenced by blocking the stem carbon contribution. Mean midday leaf photosynthesis was 12 μmol CO₂ m^–2 s^–1 and 17 μmol CO₂ m^–2 s^–1 for G. max and 5. junceum, respectively. Mean midday stem photosynthesis of S. junceum was 6.5 μmol CO₂ m^–2 s^–1; however, positive net photosynthesis did not occur in G. max stems. Water stress caused a proportionally greater decrease in leaf photosynthesis compared to that of stems during diurnal cycles of photosynthesis in S. junceum. As a result the contribution to canopy carbon gain by stem photosynthesis increased from 38% to 48% of the total plant carbon gain under reduced water availability.     

POSITIONAL AND SEASONAL VARIATION IN OAK (QUERCUS; FAGACEAE) LEAF MORPHOLOGY

Within-tree and seasonal variation in quantitative characters of oak leaves were evaluated by factorial analysis of variance. All linear and areal measurements illustrate marked within-tree and seasonal variation. Numbers of lobes and bristle tips and primary vein angle appear relatively stable within trees and among seasons. In many instances, size-correction reduces both within-tree and seasonal variance to nonsignificant levels. However, all characters do not illustrate the same trends either within trees or across the seasons. The results have important implications for those attempting to evaluate among-tree and among-population variation.     

SEASONAL PATTERNS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND LIGHT-INDEPENDENT CARBON FIXATION IN MARINE MACROPHYTES1

The contribution of light-independent carbon fixation (LICF) to the overall carbon gain and the seasonal patterns of maximum photosynthesis (P_max and LICF were characterized in a broad taxonomic range of macrophytes from Monterey Bay, California. P_max and LICF rates (nmol C.g filtered seawater^?1.min^?1) varied among species and taxonomic groups examined, and as a function of tissue type in the phaeophyte Laminaria setchellii Silva (Phaeophyceae). On average, P_max values were higher in the Rhodophyta, whereas LICF rates were greater in the Phaeophyceae. LICF rates were generally less than 5% of P_max in the marine macrophytes studied and, as a consequence, cannot fully compensate for respiratory carbon losses, which usually are greater than 10% of P_max. All species studied possessed the highest P_max and LICF rates when irradiance levels were highest and decreased during periods of low incident irradiance. Seasonal patterns of P_max and LICF in most of the macrophytes from the stenothermal environment of Monterey Bay were strongly correlated with photosynthetic photon flux rather than seawater temperature. The concomitant decrease of LICF and P_max rates in all species examined argues against LICF playing a major role in carbon acquisition under light-limiting conditions as suggested previously. Rather, the strong positive correlation of P_max and LICF indicates the direct coupling of photosynthate (e.g. 3-phosphoglyceric acid) generation with production of substrates for LICF reactions. Our results also suggest that LICF might be a useful indicator of photosynthetic metabolism in marine macrophytes.     

On the ecological and evolutionary significance OF BRANCH AND LEAF MORPHOLOGY IN aquatic Sphagnum (Sphagnaceae)

In aquatic environments difiusivity is low and CO₂ availability can limit plant growth. The hypothesis that natural selection has favored morphological features that reduce resistance to diffusion of CO₂ was tested using three phylogenetically independent species pairs from the genus Sphagnum (S. macrophyllum and 5. strictum; S. portoricense and S. papillosum; and S. trinitense and S. recurvum). The aquatic (former) and the nonaquatic (latter) species were grown submerged and emerged in a common garden and used for studies of form and function. Aquatic taxa all had similar morphological features that included larger, thinner branch leaves arranged at lower densities and photosynthetic cells more greatly exposed at the leaf surface. The relationship between observed branch and leaf morphology and boundary layer resistance in the S. trinitense–S. recurvum species pair was assessed by measuring diffusion and convection of ions onto nickel-plated models in a variable-speed electrochemical fluid tunnel. For all flow speeds and orientations, the aquatic S. trinitense model had thinner boundary layers than the nonaquatic S. recurvum model. Analysis of stable isotopes of carbon from the growth experiment corroborated results from the fluid-tunnel experiments. The aquatic taxa all had lower δ ¹³C values when grown submerged compared to their nonaquatic pair with the exception of the nonaquatic S. strictum, which was removed due to low growth rates. These results indicate that aquatic species did experience lower overall resistance to CO₂ uptake than nonaquatic taxa. Our observations suggest that aquatic habitats do select for morphological features that lower resistance to gas exchange.     

VASCULAR ORGANIZATION IN SHOOTS OF CACTACEAE. I. DEVELOPMENT AND MORPHOLOGY OF PRIMARY VASCULATURE IN PERESKIOIDEAE AND OPUNTIOIDEAE

Primary shoot vasculature has been studied for 31 species of Pereskioideae and Opuntioideae from serial transections and stained, decorticated shoot tips. The eustele of all species is interpreted as consisting of sympodia, one for each orthostichy. A sympodium is composed of a vertically continuous axial bundle from which arise leaf- and areole-trace bundles and, in many species, accessory bundles and bridges between axial bundles. Provascular strands for leaf traces and axial bundles are initiated acropetally and continuously within the residual meristem, but differentiation of procambium for areole traces and bridges is delayed until primordia form on axillary buds. The differentiation patterns of primary phloem and xylem are those typically found in other dicotyledons. In all species vascular supply for a leaf is principally derived from only one procambial bundle that arises from axial bundles, whereas traces from two axial bundles supply the axillary bud. Two structural patterns of primary vasculature are found in the species examined. In four species of Pereskia that possess the least specialized wood in the stem, primary vascular systems are open, and leaf traces are mostly multipartite, arising from one axial bundle. In other Pereskioideae and Opuntioideae the vascular systems are closed through a bridge at each node that arises near the base of each leaf, and leaf traces are generally bipartite or single. Vascular systems in Pereskiopsis are relatively simple as compared to the complex vasculature of Opuntia, in which a vascular network is formed at each node by fusion of two sympodia and a leaf trace with areole traces and numerous accessory bundles. Variations in nodal structure correlate well with differences in external shoot morphology. Previous reports that cacti have typical 2-trace, unilacunar nodal structure are probably incorrect. Pereskioideae and Opuntioideae have no additional medullary or cortical systems.     

EFFECT OF LEAF ANGLE AND ORIENTATION ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND WATER RELATIONS IN SILPHIUM TEREBINTHINACEUM

Leaf angle and orientation were measured for 217 leaves from two populations of Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq., a prairie forb with large, unlobed leaves. Seventy-five percent of leaves measured had an angle of deviation from horizontal of more than 60°, and 60% were oriented within 15° of North. Incident Photon Flux Density (PFD), leaf temperature, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance to CO₂, internal CO₂ concentration, transpiration, and water use efficiency (WUE) were measured on 67 pairs of leaves with the axes oriented in either a North-South (N–S) or East–West (E–W) direction. Leaves with axes oriented N–S intercepted higher levels of PFD during morning and afternoon and exhibited higher diurnal rates of photosynthesis and WUE. Leaf temperature was reduced in N–S leaves during midday as compared to E–W leaves, and was lower in vertical leaves than in those in a horizontal position. Therefore, it was concluded that leaf orientation and verticality enhance carbon gain and minimize water loss—characteristics which may have adaptive significance in a hot, stressful prairie environment.     

MORPHOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF COLLETERS AND CRYSTALS IN RELATION TO THE TAXONOMY AND BACTERIAL LEAF NODULE SYMBIOSIS OF PSYCHOTRIA (RUBIACEAE)

Earlier investigators established that a finger-like colleter with elongate axial cells and a palisade epidermis is the standard type in the Rubiaceae. This type, with some variation, also prevails in Psychotria, based on a worldwide anatomical survey of vegetative buds from herbarium specimens of 296 species (about 50 % of total). It is virtually the only type found outside of continental Africa. Among African species, it is most common in subgenus Psychotria, with mostly nodule-free species. In subgenus Tetramerae, with only leaf-nodulated species, there is a strong tendency toward brushlike and dendroid colleters in which epidermal cells are extremely elongate and separated from each other. It is speculated that this change in colleter morphology associated with presence of nodule bacteria may be correlated with a change in secretion product more suitable for support of bacteria. Three morphological forms of crystal occur: raphides, styloids, clustered crystals. They may occur singly or in combination. Several patterns and trends were noted in crystal distribution that could be of taxonomic significance.     

樟科木姜子属群的起源与演化

论述了樟科木姜子属群的起源与演化,认为该属群起源于古北大陆南部和古南大陆北部,以及古地中海周围热带地区,起源时间不早于中白垩纪。这一自然属群明显存在着平行进化情况,其核心的木姜子属和山胡椒属极可能是同地起源于共同祖先,我国南部至印度马来西亚可能是这两属的起源和分化中心,并从这里向热带美洲及大洋洲扩散。其余的属可能从这一核心演化出来。     

PATTERNS OF LEAF AND FLOWER REMOVAL: THEIR EFFECT ON FRUIT GROWTH IN CHAMAENERION ANGUSTIFOLIUM (FIREWEED)

The response of Chamaenerion angustifolium (fireweed) plants to different patterns of artificial leaf and flower herbivory was examined to determine if the effects of localized herbivory were confined within vertical sectors of the plant. The effect of leaf and flower removal on fruit development was compared for removals within sectors and distributed among sectors. Fruit development did not differ in plants subjected to different patterns of leaf and flower removal. These results suggest that in disturbed plants carbohydrate movement is not confined within vertical sectors.     

STUDIES ON THE LEAF OF POPULUS DELTOIDES (SALICACEAE): MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY

Mature field- and growth-chamber-grown leaves of Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. were examined with light and scanning electron microscopes to determine their vasculature and the spatial relationships of the various orders of vascular bundles to the mesophyll. Three leaf traces, one median and two lateral, enter the petiole at the node. Progressing acropetally in the petiole these bundles are rearranged and gradually form as many as 13 tiers of vascular tissue in the petiole at the base of the lamina. (Most leaves contained seven vertically stacked tiers.) During their course through the midrib the tiers “unstack” and portions diverge outward and continue as secondary veins toward the margin on either side of the lamina. As the midvein approaches the leaf tip it is represented by a single vascular bundle which is a continuation of the original median bundle. Tertiary veins arise from the secondary veins or the midvein, and minor veins commonly arise from all orders of veins. All major veins–primaries, secondaries, intersecondaries, and tertiaries–are associated with rib tissue, while minor veins are completely surrounded by a parenchymatous bundle sheath. The bundle sheaths of tertiary, quaternary, and portions of quinternary veins are associated with bundle-sheath extensions. Minor veins are closely associated spatially with both ad- and abaxial palisade parenchyma of the isolateral leaf and also with one or two layers of paraveinal mesophyll that extend horizontally between the veins. The leaves of growth-chamber-grown plants had thinner blades, a higher proportion of air space, and greater interveinal distances than those of field-grown plants.     

LIMITATIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE ZEA MAYS LEAF

The progressive development of the photosynthetic apparatus occurring along the length of the Zea mays leaf offers a convenient system with which to examine the limitations to photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation during biogenesis of a C₄ leaf. Changes in light-induced O₂ evolution and CO₂ assimilation, chlorophyll content, activity of PEP-carboxylase, NADP-malic enzyme and the 'R5P system' (consisting of d -ribose-5-phosphate-keto isomerase, ATP- d -ribulose-5 phosphate 1-phosphotransferase and d -ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase) and fluorescence emission characteristics were examined along the length of the second leaf of 7-day-old plants grown under a diurnal light regime. The results suggest that the major limitation to CO₂ assimilation in the leaf sheath lies within the chlorenchyma and is either energy supply for carboxylation or the capacity of key photosynthetic enzymes. In the leaf blade stomatal resistance to CO₂ diffusion constitutes a major fraction of the total leaf resistance to CO₂ assimilation implicating the stoma as the major limiting factor to photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation.