铬的营养生理功能

三价铬是人和动物必需的微量元素。铬在吸收后主要由转铁蛋白运输。在细胞内,4个三价铬离子与apochromodulin形成有活性的hopochromodulin。hopochromodulin除了可与胰岛素和/或胰岛素受体直接结合起作用外,还可以通过激活AMPK激酶来降低细胞膜胆固醇含量,改善细胞骨架功能,促进GLUT4移位,然后又通过激活p38MAPK激酶增强GLUT4的内在活性,从而促进葡萄糖吸收。铬也可以提高生长激素轴活性,并有降低动物机体脂肪沉积、增加肌内脂肪沉积、提高瘦肉率等作用。     

插入到细胞膜上的葡萄糖转运子4可不暴露其被光化学法标记的活性位点

胰岛素刺激骨胳肌产生磷脂酰肌醇3, 4, 5三磷酸(PI(3,4,5)P₃), 它是促进葡萄糖转运子4(GLUT4)与细胞膜融合的必要条件. 向肌肉细胞内导入PI(3,4,5)P₃可以模拟胰岛素刺激GLUT4与细胞膜融合的作用, 但不足以增加细胞摄取葡萄糖的量. 本研究目的是探讨PI(3,4,5)P₃与胰岛素作用不同的机制. 在骨骼肌细胞株(L6-GLUT4myc)中, 应用免疫反应方法检测细胞膜片上与特异性抗体反应的GLUT4的胞浆区羧基末端表位和胞外区myc表位的可用性; 使用不能渗透到细胞内的甘露糖-生物素衍生物Bio-LC-ATB-BMPA, 结合亲和光化学标记法检测GLUT4胞外区的活性位点. 相对于基础组, 100 nmol/L胰岛素和10 mmol/L PI(3,4,5)P₃分别使与myc结合的抗体量增加1.64倍和1.58倍. 胰岛素还使细胞膜上GLUT4的光化学标记量和细胞膜片上与羧基末端表位结合的抗体量分别增加了2.47倍和2.04倍, 而PI(3,4,5)P₃则无此作用. 在胰岛素作用下, 细胞膜片上与羧基末端表位结合的抗体量大于与myc表位结合的抗体量(分别为2.04和1.64倍). 结果表明: (i) 尽管PI(3,4,5)P₃能使GLUT4与细胞膜融合, 但不能使GLUT4胞外区的活性位点暴露; (ii) GLUT4胞外区活性位点的可用性与胞浆区羧基末端的可用性相关; (iii) 除了能刺激GLUT4与细胞膜融合, 胰岛素还使封闭GLUT4羧基末端的蛋白脱离. 推论胞浆内某种蛋白封闭羧基末端, 同样阻止甘露糖-生物素衍生物对GLUT4活性位点的标记, 并可能妨碍GLUT4转运葡萄糖.     

胰岛素受体介导的信号传递

就胰岛素与其受体结合后, 信号传递的过程及参与信号传递的细胞内信号分子进行了综述.胰岛素作为一种重要激素,参与机体的新陈代谢, 调节细胞的生长分化.其发挥生理功能的第一步是与靶细胞膜上的受体相结合, 激活胰岛素受体的酪氨酸激酶活性, 随之磷酸化细胞内的信号分子, 从而使胰岛素的刺激信号转化为细胞反应.     

胰岛素刺激葡萄糖转运蛋白4易位的信号传导机制

葡萄糖转运蛋白4（GLUT4）。主要分布于骨胳肌,心肌及脂肪组织中,当胰岛素与细胞膜受体结合后。产生一系列信号,促进GLUT4从胞内易位至细胞膜,GLUT4通过自身构象改变。将葡萄糖摄入细胞内,从而协助维持血糖的稳定,这些具体信号正在被广泛深入的研究。现在发现至少有两条独立的信号传导途径。一条是经典的PI3K途径。另一条是新近发现的Cb1/CAP途径。深入了解这些信号传导途径。对于揭示2型糖尿病的发病机制有重要的意义。     

胰岛素受体酪氨酸激酶与胰岛素作用

关于胰岛素的作用机制,目前有一种假说,认为胰岛素与其受体的α亚基结合后将信息传递给β亚基,引起β亚基酪氨酸激酶自身磷酸化而激活。酪氨酸激酶可以使细胞内其他蛋白质磷酸化,从而启动一系列细胞内事件发挥胰岛素的多重调节作用。通过近六年来的深入研究,已经了解胰岛素受体酪氨酸激酶在介导胰岛素的绝大多数生物学效应中起着关键作用。本文对这方面的研究进展情况及前景作一简要综述。 (一)胰岛素受体的结构近年来采用亲和标记、免疫沉淀、亲和层析、分子克隆等技术,对胰岛素受体的结构进行了研究。现在已了解胰岛素受体分子由两个13.5万分子量的α亚基、两个9.5万分子量的β亚基,三对二硫键连接而成。胰岛素受体的α及β亚基是由一1382个氨基酸组成的前受体原     

转铁蛋白受体——肿瘤的标志物和靶向治疗

转铁蛋白受体不仅介导细胞内铁的摄取和参与细胞生长调节,而且能够在肿瘤细胞表面高度表达,被认为是一种有效的肿瘤标志物,广泛应用于各类恶性肿瘤的靶向治疗。利用转铁蛋白或转铁蛋白受体的单克隆抗体与转铁蛋白受体的特异性结合作用,通过受体介导的内吞机制实现化疗药物、蛋白毒素或治疗性基因等的细胞摄入。随着对转铁蛋白受体的深入研究,靶向转铁蛋白受体的肿瘤药物将在基因治疗和跨血脑屏障运输等多方面得到进一步应用。     

量子点标记活细胞内GLUT4 蛋白的研究

目的:研究量子点标记活细胞内GLUT4蛋白的方法,用于长时程观察活细胞内GLUT4的转运过程。方法:使用在GLUT4蛋白膜外区构建了myc位点的L6-GLUT4myc细胞系,用胰岛素刺激L6细胞内的GLUT4myc转运到细胞膜上,通过抗体抗原反应先后将一抗9E10和偶联二抗IgG的量子点与特异性位点结合。结果:通过量子点标记固定细胞内GLUT4的实验,证明了标记方法的特异性和灵敏性。量子点能够标记细胞膜表面的GLUT4蛋白并伴随GLUT4的胞吞进入细胞。适当调整实验温度,用量子点标记细胞膜上的GLUT4并且在实验过程结束后将标记了量子点的GLUT4保持在细胞膜表面,能够观察活细胞内GLUT4蛋白内化和胞内循环的过程。结论:发展了量子点标记活细胞内GLUT4的方法,为进一步研究活细胞内GLUT4的转运过程打下了基础。     

GLUT4在胰岛素调控葡萄糖转运中作用

机体的血糖平衡调节主要依赖于胰岛素,其中一个重要的机制是胰岛素通过调控GLUT4的囊泡运转来调节脂肪细胞和肌细胞对葡萄糖的摄取。由胰岛素受体介导的一系列磷酸化过程能调节一些关键的GLUT4转运相关蛋白质的活性,这些蛋白质包括小GTP酶、拴系复合体和囊泡融合体。而这些蛋白质又反过来通过内膜系统调节GLUT4储存囊泡的生成、滞留,并调控这些囊泡的靶向出胞方式。了解这些过程有助于解释2型糖尿病中胰岛素耐受的机制,并可能为糖尿病提供新的靶向治疗方法。     

葡萄糖转运的胰岛素敏感性以及forskolin, dipyridamole和pentobarbital对三种L6 骨骼肌细胞葡萄糖转运的抑制作用

用稳定过表达并带有myc表位的葡萄糖转运子1(glucose transporter 1, GLUT1)或葡萄糖转运子4(glucose transporter 4, GLUT4)的L6骨骼肌细胞株定征GLUT1和GLUT4对胰岛素的响应. 所筛选的L6-GLUT1myc细胞克隆分化前后的葡萄糖摄取量均在线性范围. 100 nmol/L胰岛素使L6-GLUT1myc和L6-GLUT4myc肌原细胞膜上GLUT1或GLUT4的量分别达到基础组的(1.58±0.01)倍和(1.96±0.11)倍, 2-脱氧葡萄糖摄取量分别达到了(1.53±0.09)倍和(1.86±0.17)倍, 此作用可被渥曼青霉素(wortmannin)抑制. 胰岛素刺激了此2种细胞中的Akt磷酸化. L6-GLUT1myc肌原细胞的葡萄糖摄取量对胰岛素浓度呈剂量依赖性, 但与野生型细胞相比, 其对胰岛素的敏感性和最大响应没有改变. 但L6-GLUT4myc肌原细胞的葡萄糖摄取量对胰岛素的敏感性和最大响应均增加. 以前的研究提示毛喉素(forskolin)可能影响胰岛素刺激的GLUT4转位. 本研究表明, 在L6-GLUT4myc细胞中, 毛喉素使胰岛素刺激的葡萄糖摄取减少了65%, 此作用是由它对GLUT4的直接抑制而不是由其对GLUT4转位的影响造成的. 毛喉素和dipyridamole对GLUT4比对GLUT1有更强的抑制作用, 而戊巴比妥(pentobarbital)对GLUT1的抑制作用强于GLUT4. 应用这些抑制剂的结果表明、L6肌原细胞中基础状态下和胰岛素刺激状态下的葡萄糖主要由过表达的GLUT1或GLUT4转运. 因此, L6-GLUT1myc和L6-GLUT4myc细胞株为筛查对肌肉细胞GLUT1或GLUT4的活性或转位有不同作用的化合物提供了一个平台.     

转铁蛋白受体及其在药物运输中的作用

血脑屏障的存在阻止了中枢神经系统疾病许多潜在治疗药物的通过.近年来主要利用脑毛细血管内皮细胞膜中的转运蛋白,如转铁蛋白受体、胰岛素受体等,将外源药物与这些受体的特异性抗体相连,通过受体介导的内吞作用将药物转运到脑组织中.转铁蛋白受体在抗癌药物定向运输及恶性肿瘤细胞基因治疗中的研究已经处于临床阶段.     

Chromium activates glucose transporter 4 trafficking and enhances insulin-stimulated glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes via a cholesterol-dependent mechanism

Evidence suggests that chromium supplementation may alleviate symptoms associated with diabetes, such as high blood glucose and lipid abnormalities, yet a molecular mechanism remains unclear. Here, we report that trivalent chromium in the chloride (CrCl3) or picolinate (CrPic) salt forms mobilize the glucose transporter, GLUT4, to the plasma membrane in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Concomitant with an increase in GLUT4 at the plasma membrane, insulin-stimulated glucose transport was enhanced by chromium treatment. In contrast, the chromium-mobilized pool of transporters was not active in the absence of insulin. Microscopic analysis of an exofacially Myc-tagged enhanced green fluorescent protein-GLUT4 construct revealed that the chromium-induced accumulation of GLUT4-containing vesicles occurred adjacent to the inner cell surface membrane. With insulin these transporters physically incorporated into the plasma membrane. Regulation of GLUT4 translocation by chromium did not involve known insulin signaling proteins such as the insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate-1, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and Akt. Consistent with a reported effect of chromium on increasing membrane fluidity, we found that chromium treatment decreased plasma membrane cholesterol. Interestingly, cholesterol add-back to the plasma membrane prevented the beneficial effect of chromium on both GLUT4 mobilization and insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Furthermore, chromium action was absent in methyl-beta-cyclodextrin-pretreated cells already displaying reduced plasma membrane cholesterol and increased GLUT4 translocation. Together, these data reveal a novel mechanism by which chromium may enhance GLUT4 trafficking and insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Moreover, these findings at the level of the cell are consistent with in vivo observations of improved glucose tolerance and decreased circulating cholesterol levels after chromium supplementation.     

Induction of caveolin during adipogenesis and association of GLUT4 with caveolin-rich vesicles

Caveolae, also termed plasmalemmal vesicles, are small, flask-shaped, non-clathrin-coated invaginations of the plasma membrane. Caveolin is a principal component of the filaments that make up the striated coat of caveolae. Using caveolin as a marker protein for the organelle, we found that adipose tissue is the single most abundant source of caveolae identified thus far. Caveolin mRNA and protein are strongly induced during differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts to adipocytes; during adipogenesis there is also a dramatic increase in the complexity of the protein composition of caveolin-rich membrane domains. About 10- 15% of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter GLUT4 is found in this caveolin-rich fraction, and immuno-isolated vesicles containing GLUT4 also contain caveolin. However, in non-stimulated adipocytes the majority of caveolin fractionates with the plasma membrane, while most GLUT4 associates with low-density microsomes. Upon addition of insulin to 3T3-L1 adipocytes, there is a significant increase in the amount of GLUT4 associated with caveolin-rich membrane domains, an increase in the amount of caveolin associated with the plasma membrane, and a decrease in the amount of caveolin associated with low-density microsomes. Caveolin does not undergo a change in phosphorylation upon stimulation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with insulin. However, after treatment with insulin it is associated with a 32-kD phosphorylated protein. Caveolae thus may play an important role in the vesicular transport of GLUT4 to or from the plasma membrane. 3T3-L1 adipocytes offer an attractive system to study the function of caveolae in several cellular trafficking and signaling events.     

Chromium enhances insulin responsiveness via AMPK

Trivalent chromium (Cr³⁺) is known to improve glucose homeostasis. Cr³⁺ has been shown to improve plasma membrane-based aspects of glucose transporter GLUT4 regulation and increase activity of the cellular energy sensor 5’ AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). However, the mechanism(s) by which Cr³⁺ improves insulin responsiveness and whether AMPK mediates this action is not known. In this study we tested if Cr³⁺ protected against physiological hyperinsulinemia-induced plasma membrane cholesterol accumulation, cortical filamentous actin (F-actin) loss and insulin resistance in L6 skeletal muscle myotubes. In addition, we performed mechanistic studies to test our hypothesis that AMPK mediates the effects of Cr³⁺ on GLUT4 and glucose transport regulation. Hyperinsulinemia-induced insulin-resistant L6 myotubes displayed excess membrane cholesterol and diminished cortical F-actin essential for effective glucose transport regulation. These membrane and cytoskeletal abnormalities were associated with defects in insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation and glucose transport. Supplementing the culture medium with pharmacologically relevant doses of Cr³⁺ in the picolinate form (CrPic) protected against membrane cholesterol accumulation, F-actin loss, GLUT4 dysregulation and glucose transport dysfunction. Insulin signaling was neither impaired by hyperinsulinemic conditions nor enhanced by CrPic, whereas CrPic increased AMPK signaling. Mechanistically, siRNA-mediated depletion of AMPK abolished the protective effects of CrPic against GLUT4 and glucose transport dysregulation. Together these findings suggest that the micronutrient Cr³⁺, via increasing AMPK activity, positively impacts skeletal muscle cell insulin sensitivity and glucose transport regulation.     

Voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 regulates GLUT4 trafficking to the plasma membrane via a Ca2+-dependent mechanism

Kv1.3 is a voltage-gated K⁺ channel expressed in insulin-sensitive tissues. We previously showed that gene inactivation or pharmacological inhibition of Kv1.3 channel activity increased peripheral insulin sensitivity independently of body weight by augmenting the amount of GLUT4 at the plasma membrane. In the present study, we further examined the effect Kv1.3 on GLUT4 trafficking and tested whether it occurred via an insulin-dependent pathway. We found that Kv1.3 inhibition by margatoxin (MgTX) stimulated glucose uptake in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle and that the effect of MgTX on glucose transport was additive to that of insulin. Furthermore, whereas the increase in uptake was wortmannin insensitive, it was completely inhibited by dantrolene, a blocker of Ca²⁺ release from intracellular Ca²⁺ stores. In white adipocytes in primary culture, channel inhibition by Psora-4 increased GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane. In these cells, GLUT4 protein translocation was unaffected by the addition of wortmannin but was significantly inhibited by dantrolene. Channel inhibition depolarized the membrane voltage and led to sustained, dantrolene-sensitive oscillations in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. These results indicate that the apparent increase in insulin sensitivity observed in association with inhibition of Kv1.3 channel activity is mediated by an increase in GLUT4 protein at the plasma membrane, which occurs largely through a Ca²⁺-dependent process. insulin; glucose; diabetes; calcium     

Insulin action on GLUT4 traffic visualized in single 3T3-l1 adipocytes by using ultra-fast microscopy

A novel imaging technology, high-speed microscopy, has been used to visualize the process of GLUT4 translocation in response to insulin in single 3T3-L1 adipocytes. A key advantage of this technology is that it requires extremely low light exposure times, allowing the quasi-continuous capture of information over 20-30 min without photobleaching or photodamage. The half-time for the accumulation of GLUT4-eGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) at the plasma membrane in a single cell was found to be of 5-7 min at 37 degrees C. This half-time is substantially longer than that of exocytic vesicle fusion in neuroendocrine cells, suggesting that additional regulatory mechanisms are involved in the stimulation of GLUT4 translocation by insulin. Analysis of four-dimensional images (3-D over time) revealed that, in response to insulin, GLUT4-eGFP-enriched vesicles rapidly travel from the juxtanuclear region to the plasma membrane. In nontransfected adipocytes, impairment of microtubule and actin filament function inhibited insulin-stimulated glucose transport by 70 and 50%, respectively. When both filament systems were impaired insulin-stimulated glucose transport was completely inhibited. Taken together, the data suggest that the regulation of long-range motility of GLUT4-containing vesicles through the interaction with microtubule- and actin-based cytoskeletal networks plays an important role in the overall effect of insulin on GLUT4 translocation.     

Subcellular localization and trafficking of the GLUT4 glucose transporter isoform in insulin-responsive cells

The rate-limiting step in the uptake and metabolism of Dglucose by insulin target cells is thought to be glucose transport mediated by glucose transporters (primarily the GLUT4 isoform) localized to the plasma membrane. However, subcellular fractionation, photolabelling and immunocytochemical studies have shown that the pool of GLUT4 present in the plasma membrane is only one of many subcellular pools of this protein. GLUT4 has been found in occluded vesicles at the plasma membrane, clathrin-coated pits and vesicles, early endosomes, and tubulo-vesicular structures; the latter are analogous to known specialized secretory compartments. Tracking the movement of GLUT4 through these compartments, and defining the mechanism and site of action of insulin in stimulating this subcellular trafficking, are major topics of current investigation. Recent evidence focuses attention on the exocytosis of GLUT4 as the major site of insulin action. Increased exocytosis may be due to decreased retention of glucose transporters in an intracellular pool, or possibly to increased assembly of a vesicle docking and fusion complex. Although details are unknown, the presence in GLUT4 vesicles of a synaptobrevin homologue leads us to propose that a process analogous to that occurring in synaptic vesicle trafficking is involved in the assembly of GLUT4 vesicles into a form suitable for fusion with the plasma membrane. Evidence that the pathways of signalling from the insulin receptor and of GLUT4 vesicle exocytosis may converge at the level of the key signalling enzyme, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, is discussed.     

Specialized sorting of GLUT4 and its recruitment to the cell surface are independently regulated by distinct Rabs

Adipocyte glucose uptake in response to insulin is essential for physiological glucose homeostasis: stimulation of adipocytes with insulin results in insertion of the glucose transporter GLUT4 into the plasma membrane and subsequent glucose uptake. Here we establish that RAB10 and RAB14 are key regulators of GLUT4 trafficking that function at independent, sequential steps of GLUT4 translocation. RAB14 functions upstream of RAB10 in the sorting of GLUT4 to the specialized transport vesicles that ferry GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. RAB10 and its GTPase-activating protein (GAP) AS160 comprise the principal signaling module downstream of insulin receptor activation that regulates the accumulation of GLUT4 transport vesicles at the plasma membrane. Although both RAB10 and RAB14 are regulated by the GAP activity of AS160 in vitro, only RAB10 is under the control of AS160 in vivo. Insulin regulation of the pool of RAB10 required for GLUT4 translocation occurs through regulation of AS160, since activation of RAB10 by DENND4C, its GTP exchange factor, does not require insulin stimulation.     

EFR3 and phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIα regulate insulin-stimulated glucose transport and GLUT4 dispersal in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin stimulates glucose transport in muscle and adipocytes. This is achieved by regulated delivery of intracellular glucose transporter (GLUT4)-containing vesicles to the plasma membrane where they dock and fuse, resulting in increased cell surface GLUT4 levels. Recent work identified a potential further regulatory step, in which insulin increases the dispersal of GLUT4 in the plasma membrane away from the sites of vesicle fusion. EFR3 is a scaffold protein that facilitates localization of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type IIIα to the cell surface. Here we show that knockdown of EFR3 or phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type IIIα impairs insulin-stimulated glucose transport in adipocytes. Using direct stochastic reconstruction microscopy, we also show that EFR3 knockdown impairs insulin stimulated GLUT4 dispersal in the plasma membrane. We propose that EFR3 plays a previously unidentified role in controlling insulin-stimulated glucose transport by facilitating dispersal of GLUT4 within the plasma membrane.     

Regulated transport of the glucose transporter GLUT4

In muscle and fat cells, insulin stimulates the delivery of the glucose transporter GLUT4 from an intracellular location to the cell surface, where it facilitates the reduction of plasma glucose levels. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that mediate this translocation event involves integrating our knowledge of two fundamental processes--the signal transduction pathways that are triggered when insulin binds to its receptor and the membrane transport events that need to be modified to divert GLUT4 from intracellular storage to an active plasma membrane shuttle service.     

C2C12 myocytes lack an insulin-responsive vesicular compartment despite dexamethasone-induced GLUT4 expression

Insulin regulates the uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle and adipocytes by redistributing the tissue-specific glucose transporter GLUT4 from intracellular vesicles to the cell surface. To date, GLUT4 is the only protein involved in insulin-regulated vesicular traffic that has this tissue distribution, thus raising the possibility that its expression alone may allow formation of an insulin-responsive vesicular compartment. We show here that treatment of differentiating C2C12 myoblasts with dexamethasone, acting via the glucocorticoid receptor, causes a >or=10-fold increase in GLUT4 expression but results in no significant change in insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Signaling from the insulin receptor to its target, Akt2, and expression of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor-attachment protein receptor, or SNARE, proteins syntaxin 4 and vesicle-associated membrane protein are normal in dexamethasone-treated C2C12 cells. However, these cells show no insulin-dependent trafficking of the insulin-responsive aminopeptidase or the transferrin receptor, respective markers for intracellular GLUT4-rich compartments and endosomes that are insulin responsive in mature muscle and adipose cells. Therefore, these data support the hypothesis that GLUT4 expression by itself is insufficient to establish an insulin-sensitive vesicular compartment.