Probing the Monophyly of the Sphaeropleales (Chlorophyceae) Using Data From Five Genes

Molecular phylogenetic analyses have had a major impact on the classification of the green algal class Chlorophyceae, corroborating some previous evolutionary hypotheses, but primarily promoting new interpretations of morphological evolution. One set of morphological traits that feature prominently in green algal systematics is the absolute orientation of the flagellar apparatus in motile cells, which correlates strongly with taxonomic classes and orders. The order Sphaeropleales includes diverse green algae sharing the directly opposite (DO) flagellar apparatus orientation of their biflagellate motile cells. However, algae across sphaeroplealean families differ in specific components of the DO flagellar apparatus, and molecular phylogenetic studies often have failed to provide strong support for the monophyly of the order. To test the monophyly of Sphaeropleales and of taxa with the DO flagellar apparatus, we conducted a molecular phylogenetic study of 16 accessions representing all known families and diverse affiliated lineages within the order, with data from four plastid genes (psaA, psaB, psbC, rbcL) and one nuclear ribosomal gene (18S). Although single‐gene analyses varied in topology and support values, analysis of combined data strongly supported a monophyletic Sphaeropleales. Our results also corroborated previous phylogenetic hypotheses that were based on chloroplast genome data from relatively few taxa. Specifically, our data resolved Volvocales, algae possessing predominantly biflagellate motile cells with clockwise (CW) flagellar orientation, as the monophyletic sister lineage to Sphaeropleales, and an alliance of Chaetopeltidales, Chaetophorales, and Oedogoniales, orders having multiflagellate motile cells with distinct flagellar orientations involving the DO and CW forms.     

DEEP DIVISION IN THE CHLOROPHYCEAE (CHLOROPHYTA) REVEALED BY CHLOROPLAST PHYLOGENOMIC ANALYSES1

The Chlorophyceae (sensu Mattox and Stewart) is a morphologically diverse class of the Chlorophyta displaying biflagellate and quadriflagellate motile cells with varying configurations of the flagellar apparatus. Phylogenetic analyses of 18S rDNA data and combined 18S and 26S rDNA data from a broad range of chlorophycean taxa uncovered five major monophyletic groups (Chlamydomonadales, Sphaeropleales, Oedogoniales, Chaetophorales, and Chaetopeltidales) but could not resolve their branching order. To gain insight into the interrelationships of these groups, we analyzed multiple genes encoded by the chloroplast genomes of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii P. A. Dang. and Chlamydomonas moewusii Gerloff (Chlamydomonadales), Scenedesmus obliquus (Turpin) Kütz. (Sphaeropleales), Oedogonium cardiacum Wittr. (Oedogoniales), Stigeoclonium helveticum Vischer (Chaetophorales), and Floydiella terrestris (Groover et Hofstetter) Friedl et O’Kelly (Chaetopeltidales). The C. moewusii, Oedogonium, and Floydiella chloroplast DNAs were partly sequenced using a random strategy. Trees were reconstructed from nucleotide and amino acid data sets derived from 44 protein‐coding genes of 11 chlorophytes and nine streptophytes as well as from 57 protein‐coding genes of the six chlorophycean taxa. All best trees identified two robustly supported major lineages within the Chlorophyceae: a clade uniting the Chlamydomonadales and Sphaeropleales, and a clade uniting the Oedogoniales, Chaetophorales, and Chaetopeltidales (OCC clade). This dichotomy is independently supported by molecular signatures in chloroplast genes, such as insertions/deletions and the distribution of trans‐spliced group II introns. Within the OCC clade, the sister relationship observed for the Chaetophorales and Chaetopeltidales is also strengthened by independent data. Character state reconstruction of basal body orientation allowed us to refine hypotheses regarding the evolution of the flagellar apparatus.     

The phylogenetic position of red algae revealed by multiple nuclear genes from mitochondria-containing eukaryotes and an alternative hypothesis on the origin of plastids

Abstract Red algae are one of the main photosynthetic eukaryotic lineages and are characterized by primitive features, such as a lack of flagella and the presence of phycobiliproteins in the chloroplast. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies using nuclear gene sequences suggest two conflicting hypotheses (monophyly versus non-monophyly) regarding the relationships between red algae and green plants. Although kingdom-level phylogenetic analyses using multiple nuclear genes from a wide-range of eukaryotic lineages were very recently carried out, they used highly divergent gene sequences of the cryptomonad nucleomorph (as the red algal taxon) or incomplete red algal gene sequences. In addition, previous eukaryotic phylogenies based on nuclear genes generally included very distant archaebacterial sequences (designated as the outgroup) and/or amitochondrial organisms, which may carry unusual gene substitutions due to parasitism or the absence of mitochondria. Here, we carried out phylogenetic analyses of various lineages of mitochondria-containing eukaryotic organisms using nuclear multigene sequences, including the complete sequences from the primitive red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae. Amino acid sequence data for two concatenated paralogous genes (α- and β-tubulin) from mitochondria-containing organisms robustly resolved the basal position of the cellular slime molds, which were designated as the outgroup in our phylogenetic analyses. Phylogenetic analyses of 53 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) based on a 1525-amino-acid sequence of four concatenated nuclear genes (actin, elongation factor-1α, α-tubulin, and β-tubulin) reliably resolved the phylogeny only in the maximum parsimonious (MP) analysis, which indicated the presence of two large robust monophyletic groups (Groups A and B) and the basal eukaryotic lineages (red algae, true slime molds, and amoebae). Group A corresponded to the Opisthokonta (Metazoa and Fungi), whereas Group B included various primary and secondary plastid-containing lineages (green plants, glaucophytes, euglenoids, heterokonts, and apicomplexans), Ciliophora, Kinetoplastida, and Heterolobosea. The red algae represented the sister lineage to Group B. Using 34 OTUs for which essentially the entire amino acid sequences of the four genes are known, MP, distance, quartet puzzling, and two types of maximum likelihood (ML) calculations all robustly resolved the monophyly of Group B, as well as the basal position of red algae within eukaryotic organisms. In addition, phylogenetic analyses of a concatenated 4639-amino-acid sequence for 12 nuclear genes (excluding the EF-2 gene) of 12 mitochondria-containing OTUs (including C. merolae) resolved a robust non-sister relationship between green plants and red algae within a robust monophyletic group composed of red algae and the eukaryotic organisms belonging to Group B. A new scenario for the origin and evolution of plastids is suggested, based on the basal phylogenetic position of the red algae within the large clade (Group B plus red algae). The primary plastid endosymbiosis likely occurred once in the common ancestor of this large clade, and the primary plastids were subsequently lost in the ancestor(s) of the Discicristata (euglenoids, Kinetoplastida, and Heterolobosea), Heterokontophyta, and Alveolata (apicomplexans and Ciliophora). In addition, a new concept of “Plantae” is proposed for phototrophic and nonphototrophic organisms belonging to Group B and red algae, on the basis of the common history of the primary plastid endosymbiosis. The Plantae include primary plastid-containing phototrophs and nonphototrophic eukaryotes that possibly contain genes of cyanobacterial origin acquired in the primary endosymbiosis.     

极小种群植物川柿叶绿体基因组特征与系统发育分析（附录）

川柿(Diospyros sutchuensis)为极小种群和国家重点保护野生植物,分布范围狭窄,种群数量极少。目前,川柿基因组信息缺乏,在柿属(Diospyros)中的系统亲缘关系不明确。该研究通过Illumina平台对川柿叶绿体基因组进行测序,应用Getorganellev1.7.3.4和PGA软件对基因组进行组装和注释,使用DnaSP6.12.03软件进行多序列对比分析,并使用REPuter、Tandem Reapeats Finder和MISA软件进行重复序列分析,使用CodonW1.4和EasyCodemL软件分别进行密码子偏好性和选择压力分析。同时,基于4个不同的叶绿体基因组序列数据集,使用IQtree软件分析川柿与11个柿属物种的系统发育关系。结果表明:(1)川柿叶绿体基因组全长157 917 bp,包含1对26 111 bp的反向重复区、大单拷贝区(87 303 bp)和小单拷贝区(18 392 bp),GC碱基含量为37.4%。(2)川柿叶绿体基因组共注释到113个基因,包括79个蛋白编码基因、30个tRNA基因和4个rRNA基因; 共检测到49个长重复序列、27个串联重复序列和34个简单重复序列; 蛋白编码基因中高频密码子31个,多数密码子末位碱基为A或U,编码亮氨酸的密码子使用最多; 基因组编码区比非编码区更为保守,10个高变热点区域可作为潜在的分子标记; 蛋白编码基因中有8个基因(ndhB、ndhG、ndhI、rbcL、rpoB、petB、petD、rps12)受到正选择压力。(3)系统发育分析显示,川柿与老鸦柿(D. rhombifolia)和乌柿(D. cathayensis)亲缘关系最为密切,它们与海南柿(D. hainanensis)共同形成一个单系分支。该研究结果既为川柿及柿属种质资源鉴定、遗传多样性保护以及种群恢复等提供了叶绿体基因组资源,也为阐明川柿的系统进化提供了重要的分子信息。     

Phylogeny of Oedogoniales, Chaetophorales and Chaetopeltidales (Chlorophyceae): inferences from sequence-structure analysis of ITS2

Background and Aims

The green algal class Chlorophyceae comprises five orders (Chlamydomonadales, Sphaeropleales, Chaetophorales, Chaetopeltidales and Oedogoniales). Attempts to resolve the relationships among these groups have met with limited success. Studies of single genes (18S rRNA, 26S rRNA, rbcL or atpB) have largely failed to unambiguously resolve the relative positions of Oedogoniales, Chaetophorales and Chaetopeltidales (the OCC taxa). In contrast, recent genomics analyses of plastid data from OCC exemplars provided a robust phylogenetic analysis that supports a monophyletic OCC alliance.

Methods

An ITS2 data set was assembled to independently test the OCC hypothesis and to evaluate the performance of these data in assessing green algal phylogeny at the ordinal or class level. Sequence-structure analysis designed for use with ITS2 data was employed for phylogenetic reconstruction.

Key Results

Results of this study yielded trees that were, in general, topologically congruent with the results from the genomic analyses, including support for the monophyly of the OCC alliance.

Conclusions

Not all nodes from the ITS2 analyses exhibited robust support, but our investigation demonstrates that sequence-structure analyses of ITS2 provide a taxon-rich means of testing phylogenetic hypotheses at high taxonomic levels. Thus, the ITS2 data, in the context of sequence-structure analysis, provide an economical supplement or alternative to the single-marker approaches used in green algal phylogeny.     

Chloroplast gene arrangement variation within a closely related group of green algae (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta)

The 22 published chloroplast genomes of green algae, representing sparse taxonomic sampling of diverse lineages that span over one billion years of evolution, each possess a unique gene arrangement. In contrast, many of the >190 published embryophyte (land plant) chloroplast genomes have relatively conserved architectures. To determine the phylogenetic depth at which chloroplast gene rearrangements occur in green algae, a 1.5-4 kb segment of the chloroplast genome was compared across nine species in three closely related genera of Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta). In total, four distinct gene arrangements were obtained for the three genera Elliptochloris, Hemichloris, and Coccomyxa. In Elliptochloris, three distinct chloroplast gene arrangements were detected, one of which is shared with members of its sister genus Hemichloris. Both species of Coccomyxa examined share the fourth arrangement of this genome region, one characterized by very long spacers. Next, the order of genes found in this segment of the chloroplast genome was compared across green algae and land plants. As taxonomic ranks are not equivalent among different groups of organisms, the maximum molecular divergence among taxa sharing a common gene arrangement in this genome segment was compared. Well-supported clades possessing a single gene order had similar phylogenetic depth in green algae and embryophytes. When the dominant gene order of this chloroplast segment in embryophytes was assumed to be ancestral for land plants, the maximum molecular divergence was found to be over two times greater in embryophytes than in trebouxiophyte green algae. This study greatly expands information about chloroplast genome variation in green algae, is the first to demonstrate such variation among congeneric green algae, and further illustrates the fluidity of green algal chloroplast genome architecture in comparison to that of many embryophytes.     

Comparative DNA sequence analyses of Pyramimonas parkeae (Prasinophyceae) chloroplast genomes

Prasinophytes form a paraphyletic assemblage of early diverging green algae, which have the potential to reveal the traits of the last common ancestor of the main two green lineages: (i) chlorophyte algae and (ii) streptophyte algae. Understanding the genetic composition of prasinophyte algae is fundamental to understanding the diversification and evolutionary processes that may have occurred in both green lineages. In this study, we sequenced the chloroplast genome of Pyramimonas parkeae NIES254 and compared it with that of P. parkeae CCMP726, the only other fully sequenced P. parkeae chloroplast genome. The results revealed that P. parkeae chloroplast genomes are surprisingly variable. The chloroplast genome of NIES254 was larger than that of CCMP726 by 3,204 bp, the NIES254 large single copy was 288 bp longer, the small single copy was 5,088 bp longer, and the IR was 1,086 bp shorter than that of CCMP726. Similarity values of the two strains were almost zero in four large hot spot regions. Finally, the strains differed in copy number for three protein‐coding genes: ycf20, psaC, and ndhE. Phylogenetic analyses using 16S and 18S rDNA and rbcL sequences resolved a clade consisting of these two P. parkeae strains and a clade consisting of these plus other Pyramimonas isolates. These results are consistent with past studies indicating that prasinophyte chloroplast genomes display a higher level of variation than is commonly found among land plants. Consequently, prasinophyte chloroplast genomes may be less useful for inferring the early history of Viridiplantae than has been the case for land plant diversification.     

The blood alga: phylogeny of Haematococcus (Chlorophyceae) inferred from ribosomal RNA gene sequence data

The status of the green algal genera Haematococcus and Stephanosphaera has been a source of debate among algal systematists. A phylogenetic alliance between Haematococcus (sensu lato) and the colonial Stephanosphaera was affirmed by earlier molecular phylogenetic investigations. Although the data suggested that the genus Haematococcus may not be a monophyletic group, taxon sampling limited the scope of any potential taxonomic revision. Results from new molecular phylogenetic analyses of data from the 18S and 26S rRNA genes support the establishment of a separate genus, Balticola, as originally proposed by Droop in 1956. Haematococcus remains as a valid genus, with H. pluvialis as its only member. The monotypic status of H. pluvialis is supported both by molecular phylogenetic analyses of the ribosomal RNA genes and assessments of molecular evolution in the ITS2 sequences of H. pluvialis strains. The near-complete absence of compensatory base changes in a sequence-structure analysis of the highly variable ITS2 gene from more than 40 geographically diverse isolates of H. pluvialis corroborates the unity of the species inferred from molecular phylogenetic analyses of 18S and 26S rRNA gene sequence data.     

PHYLOGENY OF THE BASAL LINEAGES OF STREPTOPHYTA BASED ON RBCL AND ATPB GENE SEQUENCE DATA

The streptophytes comprise the Charophyceae sensu Mattox and Stewart (a morphologically diverse group of fresh‐water green algae) and the embryophytes (land plants). Several charophycean groups are currently recognized. These include the Charales, Coleochaetales, Chlorokybales, Klebsormidiales and Zygnemophyceae (Desmidiales and Zygnematales). Recently, SSU rRNA gene sequence data allied Mesostigma viride (Prasinophyceae) with the Streptophyta. Complete chloroplast sequence data, however, placed Mesostigma sister to all green algae, not with the streptophytes. Several morphological, ultrastructural and biochemical features unite these lineages into a monophyletic group including embryophytes, but evolutionary relationships among the basal streptophytes remain ambiguous. To date, numerous studies using SSU rRNA gene sequences have yielded differing phylogenies with varying degrees of support dependent upon taxon sampling and choice of phylogenetic method. Like SSU data, chloroplast DNA sequence data have been used to examine relationships within the Charales, Coleochaetales, Zygnemophyceae and embryophytes. Representatives of all basal streptophyte lineages have not been examined using chloroplast data in a single analysis. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using DNA sequences of rbcL (the genes encoding the large subunit of rubisco) and atpB (the beta‐subunit of ATPase) to examine relationships of basal streptophyte lineages. Preliminary analyses placed the branch leading to Mesostigma as the basal lineage in the Streptophyta with Chlorokybus, the sole representative of the Chlorokybales, branching next. Klebsormidiales and the enigmatic genus Entransia were sister taxa. Sister to these, the Charales, Coleochaetales, embryophytes and Zygnemophyceae formed a monophyletic group with Charales and Coleochaetales sister to each other and this clade sister to the embryophytes.     

The complete chloroplast DNA sequences of the charophycean green algae <Emphasis Type="Italic">Staurastrum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zygnema</Emphasis> reveal that the chloroplast genome underwent extensive changes during the evolution of the Zygnematales

Background  

The Streptophyta comprise all land plants and six monophyletic groups of charophycean green algae. Phylogenetic analyses of four genes from three cellular compartments support the following branching order for these algal lineages: Mesostigmatales, Chlorokybales, Klebsormidiales, Zygnematales, Coleochaetales and Charales, with the last lineage being sister to land plants. Comparative analyses of the Mesostigma viride (Mesostigmatales) and land plant chloroplast genome sequences revealed that this genome experienced many gene losses, intron insertions and gene rearrangements during the evolution of charophyceans. On the other hand, the chloroplast genome of Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Coleochaetales) is highly similar to its land plant counterparts in terms of gene content, intron composition and gene order, indicating that most of the features characteristic of land plant chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) were acquired from charophycean green algae. To gain further insight into when the highly conservative pattern displayed by land plant cpDNAs originated in the Streptophyta, we have determined the cpDNA sequences of the distantly related zygnematalean algae Staurastrum punctulatum and Zygnema circumcarinatum.     

Sequence analysis and phylogenetic reconstruction of the genes encoding the large and small subunits of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase from the chlorophyllb-containing prokaryoteProchlorothrix hollandica

Summary Prochlorophytes similar toProchloron sp. andProchlorothrix hollandica have been suggested as possible progenitors of the plastids of green algae and land plants because they are prokaryotic organisms that possess chlorophyllb (chlb). We have sequenced theProchlorothrix genes encoding the large and small subunits of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco),rbcL andrbcS, for comparison with those of other taxa to assess the phylogenetic relationship of this species. Length differences in the large subunit polypeptide among all sequences compared occur primarily at the amino terminus, where numerous short gaps are present, and at the carboxy terminus, where sequences ofAlcaligenes eutrophus and non-chlorophyllb algae are several amino acids longer. Some domains in the small subunit polypeptide are conserved among all sequences analyzed, yet in other domains the sequences of different phylogenetic groups exhibit specific structural characteristics. Phylogenetic analyses ofrbcL andrbcS using Wagner parsimony analysis of deduced amino acid sequences indicate thatProchlorothrix is more closely related to cyanobacteria than to the green plastid lineage. The molecular phylogenies suggest that plastids originated by at least three separate primary endosymbiotic events, i.e., once each leading to green algae and land plants, to red algae, and toCyanophora paradoxa. TheProchlorothrix rubisco genes show a strong GC bias, with 68% of the third codon positions being G or C. Factors that may affect the GC content of different genomes are discussed.     

四种栎属青冈亚属植物叶绿体基因组特征及系统发育研究

栎属青冈亚属植物的系统发育地位长期存在着争议，部分种的种间关系不明确。为揭示宁冈青冈(Quercus ningangensis)、曼青冈(Q.oxyodon)、毛曼青冈(Q.gambleana)、竹叶青冈(Q.neglecta)的叶绿体基因组特征及系统发育关系，该研究选择以上4种栎属青冈亚属植物的成熟叶片进行二代测序，对其叶绿体基因组结构和特征进行分析，并结合相关类群进行系统发育研究。结果表明：(1)宁冈青冈、曼青冈、毛曼青冈、竹叶青冈的叶绿体基因组序列长度分别为160 906、160 883、160 832、160 784 bp,均编码133个基因，包括88个蛋白质编码基因、37个tRNA基因、8个rRNA基因。(2)4种栎属青冈亚属植物偏好以A/T结尾的密码子，质体基因组变异区域主要存在于非编码序列。(3)通过IR边界分析得出，4种栎属青冈亚属植物存在ycf1假基因且在IRb/SSC区域发生扩张。(4)系统发育分析显示，在壳斗科中，水青冈属(Fagus)和轮叶三棱栎属(Trigonobalanus)较早分化出来，栎亚属(subg.Quercus)未形成一个单系群，叶绿体基因组建树结...     

Reappraising plastid markers of the red algae for phylogenetic community ecology in the genomic era

Selection of appropriate genetic markers to quantify phylogenetic diversity is crucial for community ecology studies. Yet, systematic evaluation of marker genes for this purpose is scarcely done. Recently, the combined effort of phycologists has produced a rich plastid genome resource with taxonomic representation spanning all of the major lineages of the red algae (Rhodophyta). In this proof‐of‐concept study, we leveraged this resource by developing and applying a phylogenomic strategy to seek candidate plastid markers suitable for phylogenetic community analysis. We ranked the core genes of 107 published plastid genomes based on various sequence‐derived properties and their tree distance to plastid genome phylogenies. The resulting ranking revealed that the most widely used marker, rbcL, is not necessarily the optimal marker, while other promising markers might have been overlooked. We designed and tested PCR primers for several candidate marker genes, and successfully amplified one of them, rpoC1, in a taxonomically broad set of red algal specimens. We suggest that our general marker identification methodology and the rpoC1 primers will be useful to the phycological community for investigating the biodiversity and community ecology of the red algae.     

Complete mitochondrial genomes of prasinophyte algae Pyramimonas parkeae and Cymbomonas tetramitiformis

Mitochondria are archetypal eukaryotic organelles that were acquired by endosymbiosis of an ancient species of alpha‐proteobacteria by the last eukaryotic common ancestor. The genetic information contained within the mitochondrial genome has been an important source of information for resolving relationships among eukaryotic taxa. In this study, we utilized mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes to explore relationships among prasinophytes. Prasinophytes are represented by diverse early‐diverging green algae whose physical structures and genomes have the potential to elucidate the traits of the last common ancestor of the Viridiplantae (or Chloroplastida). We constructed de novo mitochondrial genomes for two prasinophyte algal species, Pyramimonas parkeae and Cymbomonas tetramitiformis, representing the prasinophyte clade. Comparisons of genome structure and gene order between these species and to those of other prasinophytes revealed that the mitochondrial genomes of P. parkeae and C. tetramitiformis are more similar to each other than to other prasinophytes, consistent with other molecular inferences of the close relationship between these two species. Phylogenetic analyses using the inferred amino acid sequences of mitochondrial and chloroplast protein‐coding genes resolved a clade consisting of P. parkeae and C. tetramitiformis; and this group (representing the prasinophyte clade I) branched with the clade II, consistent with previous studies based on the use of nuclear gene markers.     

The phylogenetic relationship between the Chlamydomonadales and Chlorococcales inferred from 18SrDNA sequence data

Nuclear-encoded small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (185rDNA) sequences were determined for Chlamydomonas moewusii Gerloff and five chlorococcalean algae (Chlorococcum hypnosporum Starr; Chlorococcum oleofaciens Trainor et Bold; Chlorococcum sp.; Tetracystis aeria Brown et Bold; Protosiphon botryoides (Kützingl Klebs). All these algae are characterized by a clockwise CCW) flagellar apparatus. Phylogenetic trees were constructed from sequences from these algae together with 20 green algae. All algae with a CW flagellar apparatus form a monophyletic clade (CW group). Three principal clades can be recognized in the CW group, although no morphological character supports monophyly of any of these three clades. The 185rDNA trees clearly demonstrate the non-monophyly of the Chlamydomonadales and Chlorococcales, suggesting that vegetative morphology does not reflect phylogenetic relationships in the CW group. The paraphyly or polyphyly of the genus Chlamydomonas and Chlorococcum are also revealed. Present analysis suggests that the presence or absence of a zoospore's cell wall and the multinucleate condition have limited taxonomic values at higher taxonomic ranks.     

AN UNRECOGNIZED ANCIENT LINEAGE OF GREEN PLANTS PERSISTS IN DEEP MARINE WATERS1

We provide molecular phylogenetic evidence that the obscure genera Palmophyllum Kütz. and Verdigellas D. L. Ballant. et J. N. Norris form a distinct and early diverging lineage of green algae. These palmelloid seaweeds generally persist in deep waters, where grazing pressure and competition for space are reduced. Their distinctness warrants recognition as a new order, the Palmophyllales. Although phylogenetic analyses of both the 18S rRNA gene and two chloroplast genes (atpB and rbcL) are in agreement with a deep‐branching Palmophyllales, the genes are in conflict about its exact phylogenetic placement. Analysis of the nuclear ribosomal DNA allies the Palmophyllales with the prasinophyte genera Prasinococcus and Prasinoderma (Prasinococcales), while the plastid gene phylogeny placed Palmophyllum and Verdigellas as sister clade to all other Chlorophyta.     

Distinctive architecture of the chloroplast genome in the chlorophycean green alga Stigeoclonium helveticum

The chloroplast genome has experienced many architectural changes during the evolution of chlorophyte green algae, with the class Chlorophyceae displaying the lowest degree of ancestral traits. We have previously shown that the completely sequenced chloroplast DNAs (cpDNAs) of Chamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlamydomonadales) and Scenedesmus obliquus (Sphaeropleales) are highly scrambled in gene order relative to one another. Here, we report the complete cpDNA sequence of Stigeoclonium helveticum (Chaetophorales), a member of a third chlorophycean lineage. This genome, which encodes 97 genes and contains 21 introns (including four putatively trans-spliced group II introns inserted at novel sites), is remarkably rich in derived features and extremely rearranged relative to its chlorophycean counterparts. At 223,902 bp, Stigeoclonium cpDNA is the largest chloroplast genome sequenced thus far, and in contrast to those of Chlamydomonas and Scenedesmus, features no large inverted repeat. Interestingly, the pattern of gene distribution between the DNA strands and the bias in base composition along each strand suggest that the Stigeoclonium genome replicates bidirectionally from a single origin. Unlike most known trans-spliced group II introns, those of Stigeoclonium exhibit breaks in domains I and II. By placing our comparative genome analyses in a phylogenetic framework, we inferred an evolutionary scenario of the mutational events that led to changes in genome architecture in the Chlorophyceae.Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.Nucleotide sequence data reported are available in the GenBank database under the accession number DQ630521.