Degradome Products of the Matricellular Protein CCN1 as Modulators of Pathological Angiogenesis in the Retina

CCN1 is a matricellular protein involved in normal vascular development and tissue repair. CCN1 exhibits cell- and context-dependent activities that are reflective of its tetramodular structure phylogenetically linked to four domains found in various matrix proteins. Here, we show that vitreal fluids from patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) were enriched with a two-module form of CCN1 comprising completely or partially the insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (IGFBP) and von Willebrand factor type C (vWC) domains. The two- and three-module forms comprising, in addition to IGFBP and vWC, the thrombospondin type 1 (TSP1) repeats are CCN1 degradome products by matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -14. The functional significance of CCN1 and its truncated variants was determined in the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy, which simulates neovascular growth associated with PDR and assesses treatment outcomes. In this model, lentivirus-mediated expression of either CCN1 or the IGFBP-vWC-TSP1 form reduced ischemia-induced neovascularization, whereas ectopic expression of the IGFBP-vWC variant exacerbated pathological angiogenesis. The IGFBP-vWC form has potent proangiogenic properties promoting retinal endothelial cell growth, migration, and three-dimensional tubular structure formation, whereas the IGFBP-vWC-TSP1 variant suppressed cell growth and angiogenic gene expression. Both IGFBP-vWC and IGFBP-vWC-TSP1 forms exhibited predictable variations of their domain folding that enhanced their functional potential. These data provide new insights into the formation and activities of CCN1-truncated variants and raise the predictive value of the form containing completely or partially the IGFBP and vWC domains as a surrogate marker of CCN1 activity in PDR distinguishing pathological from physiological angiogenesis.     

The matricellular protein cysteine-rich protein 61 (CCN1/Cyr61) enhances physiological adaptation of retinal vessels and reduces pathological neovascularization associated with ischemic retinopathy

Retinal vascular damages are the cardinal hallmarks of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), a leading cause of vision impairment and blindness in childhood. Both angiogenesis and vasculogenesis are disrupted in the hyperoxia-induced vaso-obliteration phase, and recapitulated, although aberrantly, in the subsequent ischemia-induced neovessel formation phase of ROP. Yet, whereas the histopathological features of ROP are well characterized, many key modulators with a therapeutic potential remain unknown. The CCN1 protein also known as cysteine-rich protein 61 (Cyr61) is a dynamically expressed, matricellular protein required for proper angiogenesis and vasculogenesis during development. The expression of CCN1 becomes abnormally reduced during the hyperoxic and ischemic phases of ROP modeled in the mouse eye with oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). Lentivirus-mediated re-expression of CCN1 enhanced physiological adaptation of the retinal vasculature to hyperoxia and reduced pathological angiogenesis following ischemia. Remarkably, injection into the vitreous of OIR mice of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) engineered to express CCN1 harnessed ischemia-induced neovessel outgrowth without adversely affecting the physiological adaptation of retinal vessels to hyperoxia. In vitro exposure of HSCs to recombinant CCN1 induced integrin-dependent cell adhesion, migration, and expression of specific endothelial cell markers as well as many components of the Wnt signaling pathway including Wnt ligands, their receptors, inhibitors, and downstream targets. CCN1-induced Wnt signaling mediated, at least in part, adhesion and endothelial differentiation of cultured HSCs, and inhibition of Wnt signaling interfered with normalization of the retinal vasculature induced by CCN1-primed HSCs in OIR mice. These newly identified functions of CCN1 suggest its possible therapeutic utility in ischemic retinopathy.     

Latent transforming growth factor beta-binding proteins-2 and -3 inhibit the proprotein convertase 5/6A

The basic amino acid-specific proprotein convertase 5/6 (PC5/6) is an essential secretory protease, as knock-out mice die at birth and exhibit multiple homeotic transformation defects, including impaired bone morphogenesis and lung structure. Some of the observed defects were attributed to impaired processing of the TGFβ-like growth differentiating factor 11 precursor (proGdf11). In this work we present evidence that the latent TGFβ-binding proteins 2 and 3 (LTBP-2 and -3) inhibit the extracellular processing of proGdf11 by PC5/6A. This is partly due to the binding of LTBPs in the endoplasmic reticulum to the zymogen proPC5/6A, thus allowing the complex to exit the endoplasmic reticulum and be sequestered as an inactive zymogen in the extracellular matrix but not at the cell surface. This results in lower levels of PC5/6A in the media, without affecting those of PACE4, Furin, or a soluble form of PC7. The secreted soluble protease-specific activity of PC5/6A or a variant lacking the C-terminal Cys-rich domain (PC5/6-ΔCRD) is significantly decreased when co-expressed with LTBPs in cells. A similar enzymatic inhibition seems to apply to PACE4 and Furin. In situ hybridization analyses revealed extensive co-localization of PC5/6 and LTBP-3 mRNAs in mice at embryonic day 15.5 and post partum day 1. In conclusion, this is the first time that a zymogen of the proprotein convertases was shown to exit the endoplasmic reticulum in the presence of LTBPs, representing a potential novel mechanism for the regulation of PC5/6A activity, e.g. in tissues such as bone and lung where LTBP-3 and PC5/6 co-localize.     

HER-2/neu-mediated down-regulation of biglycan associated with altered growth properties

The extracellular matrix protein biglycan (Bgn) is a leucine-rich proteoglycan that is involved in the matrix assembly, cellular migration and adhesion, cell growth, and apoptosis. Although a distinct expression of Bgn was found in a number of human tumors, the role of this protein in the initiation and/or maintenance of neoplastic transformation has not been studied in detail. Using an in vitro model of oncogenic transformation, a down-regulation of Bgn expression as well as an altered secretion of different Bgn isoforms was found both in murine and human HER-2/neu oncogene-transformed cells when compared with HER-2/neu(-) cells. This was associated with a reduced growth, wound closure, and migration capacity. Vice versa, silencing of Bgn in HER-2/neu(-) fibroblasts increased the growth rate and migration capacity of these cells. Bgn expression was neither modulated in HER-2/neu(+) cells by transforming growth factor-β(1) nor by inhibition of the phosphoinositol 3-kinase and MAP kinase pathways. In contrast, inhibition of the protein kinase C (PKC) pathway led to the reconstitution of Bgn expression. In particular, the PKC target protein cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) is a major regulator of Bgn expression as the silencing of CREB by RNA interference was accompanied by ～5000-fold increase in Bgn-mRNA expression in HER-2/neu(+) cells. Thus, Bgn inhibits the major properties of HER-2/neu-transformed cells, which is inversely modulated by the PKC signaling cascade.     

An Integrin Binding-defective Mutant of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (R36E/R37E IGF1) Acts as a Dominant-negative Antagonist of the IGF1 Receptor (IGF1R) and Suppresses Tumorigenesis but Still Binds to IGF1R

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) is a major therapeutic target for cancer. We recently reported that IGF1 directly binds to integrins (αvβ3 and α6β4) and induces ternary complex formation (integrin-IGF1-IGF1 receptor (IGF1R)) and that the integrin binding-defective mutant of IGF1 (R36E/R37E) is defective in signaling and ternary complex formation. These findings predict that R36E/R37E competes with WT IGF1 for binding to IGF1R and inhibits IGF signaling. Here, we described that excess R36E/R37E suppressed cell viability increased by WT IGF1 in vitro in non-transformed cells. We studied the effect of R36E/R37E on viability and tumorigenesis in cancer cell lines. We did not detect an effect of WT IGF1 or R36E/R37E in cancer cells under anchorage-dependent conditions. However, under anchorage-independent conditions, WT IGF1 enhanced cell viability and induced signals, whereas R36E/R37E did not. Notably, excess R36E/R37E suppressed cell viability and signaling induced by WT IGF1 under anchorage-independent conditions. Using cancer cells stably expressing WT IGF1 or R36E/R37E, we determined that R36E/R37E suppressed tumorigenesis in vivo, whereas WT IGF1 markedly enhanced it. R36E/R37E suppressed the binding of WT IGF1 to the cell surface and the subsequent ternary complex formation induced by WT IGF1. R36E/R37E suppressed activation of IGF1R by insulin. WT IGF1, but not R36E/R37E, induced ternary complex formation with the IGF1R/insulin receptor hybrid. These findings suggest that 1) IGF1 induces signals under anchorage-independent conditions and that 2) R36E/R37E acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of IGF1R (IGF1 decoy). Our results are consistent with a model in which ternary complex formation is critical for IGF signaling.     

Prodomains of transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) superfamily members specify different functions: extracellular matrix interactions and growth factor bioavailability

The specific functions of the prodomains of TGFβ superfamily members are largely unknown. Interactions are known between prodomains of TGFβ-1-3 and latent TGFβ-binding proteins and between prodomains of BMP-2, -4, -7, and -10 and GDF-5 and fibrillins, raising the possibility that latent TGFβ-binding proteins and fibrillins may mediate interactions with all other prodomains of this superfamily. This possibility is tested in this study. Results show that the prodomain of BMP-5 interacts with the N-terminal regions of fibrillin-1 and -2 in a site similar to the binding sites for other bone morphogenetic proteins. However, in contrast, the prodomain of GDF-8 (myostatin) interacts with the glycosaminoglycan side chains of perlecan. The binding site for the GDF-8 prodomain is likely the heparan sulfate chain present on perlecan domain V. These results support and extend the emerging concept that TGFβ superfamily prodomains target their growth factor dimers to extracellular matrix macromolecules. In addition, biochemical studies of prodomain·growth factor complexes were performed to identify inactive complexes. For some members of the superfamily, the prodomain is noncovalently associated with its growth factor dimer in an inactive complex; for others, the prodomain·growth factor complex is active, even though the prodomain is noncovalently associated with its growth factor dimer. Results show that the BMP-10 prodomain, in contrast to BMP-4, -5, and -7 prodomains, can inhibit the bioactivity of the BMP-10 growth factor and suggest that the BMP-10 complex is like TGFβ and GDF-8 complexes, which can be activated by cleavage of the associated prodomain.     

Defining the disulfide bonds of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-5 by tandem mass spectrometry with electron transfer dissociation and collision-induced dissociation

The six high-affinity insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins (IGFBPs) comprise a conserved family of secreted molecules that modulate IGF actions by regulating their half-life and access to signaling receptors, and also exert biological effects that are independent of IGF binding. IGFBPs are composed of cysteine-rich amino- (N-) and carboxyl- (C-) terminal domains, along with a cysteine-poor central linker segment. IGFBP-5 is the most conserved IGFBP, and contains 18 cysteines, but only 2 of 9 putative disulfide bonds have been mapped to date. Using a mass spectrometry (MS)-based strategy combining sequential electron transfer dissociation (ETD) and collision-induced dissociation (CID) steps, in which ETD fragmentation preferentially induces cleavage of disulfide bonds, and CID provides exact disulfide linkage assignments between liberated peptides, we now have definitively mapped 5 disulfide bonds in IGFBP-5. In addition, in conjunction with ab initio molecular modeling we are able to assign the other 4 disulfide linkages to within a GCGCCXXC motif that is conserved in five IGFBPs. Because of the nature of ETD fragmentation MS experiments were performed without chemical reduction of IGFBP-5. Our results not only establish a disulfide bond map of IGFBP-5 but also define a general approach that takes advantage of the specificity of ETD and the scalability of tandem MS, and the predictive power of ab initio molecular modeling to characterize unknown disulfide linkages in proteins.     

Fibroblast growth factor-23-mediated inhibition of renal phosphate transport in mice requires sodium-hydrogen exchanger regulatory factor-1 (NHERF-1) and synergizes with parathyroid hormone

Fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) inhibits sodium-dependent phosphate transport in brush border membrane vesicles derived from hormone-treated kidney slices of the mouse and in mouse proximal tubule cells by processes involving mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) but not protein kinase A (PKA) or protein kinase C (PKC). By contrast, phosphate transport in brush border membrane vesicles and proximal tubule cells from sodium-hydrogen exchanger regulatory factor-1 (NHERF-1)-null mice were resistant to the inhibitory effect of FGF-23 (10(-9) m). Infection of NHERF-1-null proximal tubule cells with wild-type adenovirus-GFP-NHERF-1 increased basal phosphate transport and restored the inhibitory effect of FGF-23. Infection with adenovirus-GFP-NHERF-1 containing a S77A or T95D mutation also increased basal phosphate transport, but the cells remained resistant to FGF-23 (10(-9) m). Low concentrations of FGF-23 (10(-13) m) and PTH (10(-11) m) individually did not inhibit phosphate transport or activate PKA, PKC, or MAPK. When combined, however, these hormones markedly inhibited phosphate transport associated with activation of PKC and PKA but not MAPK. These studies indicate that FGF-23 inhibits phosphate transport in the mouse kidney by processes that involve the scaffold protein NHERF-1. In addition, FGF-23 synergizes with PTH to inhibit phosphate transport by facilitating the activation of the PTH signal transduction pathway.     

Premature ligand-receptor interaction during biosynthesis limits the production of growth factor midkine and its receptor LDL receptor-related protein 1

Protein production within the secretory pathway is accomplished by complex but organized processes. Here, we demonstrate that the growth factor midkine interacts with LDL receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) at high affinity (K(d) value, 2.7 nm) not only at the cell surface but also within the secretory pathway during biosynthesis. The latter premature ligand-receptor interaction resulted in aggregate formation and consequently suppressed midkine secretion and LRP1 maturation. We utilized an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retrieval signal and an LRP1 fragment, which strongly bound to midkine and the LRP1-specialized chaperone receptor-associated protein (RAP), to construct an ER trapper. The ER trapper efficiently trapped midkine and RAP and mimicked the premature ligand-receptor interaction, i.e. suppressed maturation of the ligand and receptor. The ER trapper also diminished the inhibitory function of LRP1 on platelet-derived growth factor-mediated cell migration. Complementary to these results, an increased expression of RAP was closely associated with midkine expression in human colorectal carcinomas (33 of 39 cases examined). Our results suggest that the premature ligand-receptor interaction plays a role in protein production within the secretory pathway.     

Determinants of RNA Binding and Translational Repression by the Bicaudal-C Regulatory Protein

Bicaudal-C (Bic-C) RNA binding proteins function as important translational repressors in multiple biological contexts within metazoans. However, their RNA binding sites are unknown. We recently demonstrated that Bic-C functions in spatially regulated translational repression of the xCR1 mRNA during Xenopus development. This repression contributes to normal development by confining the xCR1 protein, a regulator of key signaling pathways, to specific cells of the embryo. In this report, we combined biochemical approaches with in vivo mRNA reporter assays to define the minimal Bic-C target site within the xCR1 mRNA. This 32-nucleotide Bic-C target site is predicted to fold into a stem-loop secondary structure. Mutational analyses provided evidence that this stem-loop structure is important for Bic-C binding. The Bic-C target site was sufficient for Bic-C mediated repression in vivo. Thus, we describe the first RNA binding site for a Bic-C protein. This identification provides an important step toward understanding the mechanisms by which evolutionarily conserved Bic-C proteins control cellular function in metazoans.     

Mast Cell Chymase Degrades the Alarmins Heat Shock Protein 70, Biglycan,HMGB1, and Interleukin-33 (IL-33) and Limits Danger-induced Inflammation

During infection and tissue damage, virulence factors and alarmins are pro-inflammatory and induce activation of various immune cells including macrophages and mast cells (MCs). Activated MCs instantly release preformed inflammatory mediators, including several proteases. The chymase mouse mast cell protease (MCPT)-4 is thought to be pro-inflammatory, whereas human chymase also degrades pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting that chymase instead limits inflammation. Here we explored the contribution of MCPT4 and human chymase to the control of danger-induced inflammation. We found that protein extracts from wild type (WT), carboxypeptidase A3-, and MCPT6-deficient mice and MCs and recombinant human chymase efficiently degrade the Trichinella spiralis virulence factor heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) as well as endogenous Hsp70. MC-(W^sash)-, serglycin-, NDST2-, and MCPT4-deficient extracts lacked this capacity, indicating that chymase is responsible for the degradation. Chymase, but not MC tryptase, also degraded other alarmins, i.e. biglycan, HMGB1, and IL-33, a degradation that was efficiently blocked by the chymase inhibitor chymostatin. IL-7, IL-22, GM-CSF, and CCL2 were resistant to chymase degradation. MCPT4-deficient conditions ex vivo and in vivo showed no reduction in added Hsp70 and only minor reduction of IL-33. Peritoneal challenge with Hsp70 resulted in increased neutrophil recruitment and TNF-α levels in the MCPT4-deficient mice, whereas IL-6 and CCL2 levels were similar to the levels found in WT mice. The rapid and MC chymase-specific degradation of virulence factors and alarmins may depend on the presence of accessible extended recognition cleavage sites in target substrates and suggests a protective and regulatory role of MC chymase during danger-induced inflammation.     

Recognition in the face of diversity: interactions of heterotrimeric G proteins and G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases with activated GPCRs

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest class of integral membrane protein receptors in the human genome. Despite the great diversity of ligands that activate these GPCRs, they interact with a relatively small number of intracellular proteins to induce profound physiological change. Both heterotrimeric G proteins and GPCR kinases are well known for their ability to specifically recognize GPCRs in their active state. Recent structural studies now suggest that heterotrimeric G proteins and GPCR kinases identify activated receptors via a common molecular mechanism despite having completely different folds.     

Sphingolipid regulation of ezrin,radixin, and moesin proteins family: Implications for cell dynamics

A key but poorly studied domain of sphingolipid functions encompasses endocytosis, exocytosis, cellular trafficking, and cell movement. Recently, the ezrin, radixin and moesin (ERM) family of proteins emerged as novel potent targets regulated by sphingolipids. ERMs are structural proteins linking the actin cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane, also forming a scaffold for signaling pathways that are used for cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and cell division. Opposing functions of the bioactive sphingolipid ceramide and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), contribute to ERM regulation. S1P robustly activates whereas ceramide potently deactivates ERM via phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, respectively. This recent dimension of cytoskeletal regulation by sphingolipids opens up new avenues to target cell dynamics, and provides further understanding of some of the unexplained biological effects mediated by sphingolipids. In addition, these studies are providing novel inroads into defining basic mechanisms of regulation and action of bioactive sphingolipids. This review describes the current understanding of sphingolipid regulation of the cytoskeleton, it also describes the biologies in which ERM proteins have been involved, and finally how these two large fields have started to converge. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled New Frontiers in Sphingolipid Biology.