Oxidative chemistry of nickel porphyrins

The oxidative chemistry of nickel(II) porphyrins is reviewed. Whether electron abstraction occurs from the metal to yield Ni(III) or from the porphyrin to yield Ni(II) pi cation radicals is discussed in terms of the relative energy levels of the metal and porphyrin orbitals. The effects of axial ligands in further modulating this ordering as well as the orbital occupancy of Ni(III) are also reviewed. Structural considerations, based on existing stereochemical data for Ni(I), high spin Ni(II) and related Ni(III) tetraaza complexes, are used to predict the metrics of Ni(III) porphyrins for which no structural data are available.     

Valence tautomerism and macrocycle ruffling in nickel(III) porphyrins

Nonlocal density functional calculations with full geometry optimization have been carried out on the low-lying electronic states of oxidized nickel porphyrins. For [NiIII(P)(Py)2]+, the ground state corresponds to a t2g6(z2)1 configuration and the t2g6(x2-y2)1 configuration is 0.43 eV higher in energy. In contrast, the ground state of [NiIII(P)(CN)2]- corresponds to a t2g6(x2-y2)1 configuration, the t2g6(z2)1 configuration being 0.96 eV higher in energy. The results are consistent with EPR spectroscopic results on the TPP analogs of these complexes. For [Ni(P)(Py)2]+, the a2u- and a1u-type Ni(II) porphyrin cation radical states are higher in energy by 0.63 and 1.23 eV, respectively, relative to the t2g6(z2)1 Ni(III) ground state. The Ni-N(Porphyrin) distance is significantly shorter in [NiIII(P)(Py)2]+ (196 pm) than in [NiIII(P)(CN)2]- (206 pm), which is consistent with the ruffled and planar macrocycle conformations, respectively, in the two complexes.     

Oxidative DNA cleavage by Schiff base tetraazamacrocyclic oxamido nickel(II) complexes

Nickel is considered a weak carcinogen. Some researches have shown that bound proteins or synthetic ligands may increase the toxic effect of nickel ions. A systematic study of ligand effects on the interaction between nickel complexes and DNA is necessary. Here, we compared the interactions between DNA and six closely related Schiff base tetraazamacrocyclic oxamido nickel(II) complexes NiL(1-3a,1-3b). The structure of one of the six complexes, NiL(3b) has been characterized by single crystal X-ray analysis. All of the complexes can cleave plasmid DNA under physiological conditions in the presence of H(2)O(2). NiL(3b) shows the highest DNA cleavage activity. It can convert supercoiled DNA to nicked DNA then linear DNA in a sequential manner as the complex concentration or reaction time is increased. The cleavage reaction is a typical pseudo-first-order consecutive reaction with the rate constants of 3.27+/-0.14h(-1) (k(1)) and 0.0966+/-0.0042h(-1) (k(2)), respectively, when a complex concentration of 0.6mM is used. The cleavage mechanism between the complex and plasmid DNA is likely to involve hydroxyl radicals as reactive oxygen species. Circular dichronism (CD), fluorescence spectroscopy and gel electrophoresis indicate that the complexes bind to DNA by partial intercalative and groove binding modes, but these binding interactions are not the dominant factor in determining the DNA cleavage abilities of the complexes.     

Oxidative DNA damage in cultured cells and rat lungs by carcinogenic nickel compounds.

DNA damage in cultured cells and in lungs of rats induced by nickel compounds was investigated to clarify the mechanism of nickel carcinogenesis. DNA strand breaks in cultured cells exposed to nickel compounds were measured by using a pulsed field gel electrophoresis technique. Among nickel compounds (Ni(3)S(2), NiO (black), NiO (green), and NiSO(4)), only Ni(3)S(2), which is highly carcinogenic, induced lesions of both double- and single-stranded DNA in cultured human cells (Raji and HeLa cells). Treatment of cultured HeLa cells with Ni(3)S(2) (10 microg/ml) induced a 1.5-fold increase in 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG) compared with control, whereas NiO (black), NiO (green), and NiSO(4) did not enhance the generation of 8-OH-dG. Intratracheal instillation of Ni(3)S(2), NiO(black), and NiO(green) to Wistar rats increased 8-OH-dG in the lungs significantly. NiSO(4) induced a smaller but significant increase in 8-OH-dG. Histological studies showed that all the nickel compounds used induced inflammation in lungs of the rats. Nitric oxide (NO) generation in phagocytic cells induced by Ni(3)S(2), NiO(black), and NiO(green) was examined using macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 cells. NO generation in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide was enhanced by all nickel particles. Two mechanisms for nickel-induced oxidative DNA damage have been proposed as follows: all the nickel compounds used induced indirect damage through inflammation, and Ni(3)S(2) also showed direct oxidative DNA damage through H(2)O(2) formation. This double action may explain relatively high carcinogenic risk of Ni(3)S(2).     

Preparation of [meso-tetraphenylchlorophinato]nickel(II) by stepwise deformylation of [meso-tetraphenyl-2,3-diformyl-secochlorinato]nickel(II): conformational consequences of breaking the structural integrity of nickel porphyrins

The stepwise, Wilkinson’s catalyst-induced decarbonylation of [meso-tetraphenyl-2,3-diformylsecochlorinato]Ni(II) (4) to produce the monoformylated pigment [meso-tetraphenyl-2-formylsecochlorinato] (5) and [meso-tetraphenylchlorophinato]Ni(II) (6) is described. Thus, we have shown how to degrade one pyrrolic unit of the starting material, [meso-tetraphenylporphyrinato]Ni(II) (2) in three steps to an aldimine linkage. The conformational changes of the porphyrinic macrocycle during the course of this degradation, as determined by comparison of the X-ray crystal structures of the compounds, are discussed. A comparative study delineates the UV-Vis spectroscopical consequences. In addition, the chemical reactivity of [meso-tetraphenylchlorophinato]Ni(II) (6) suggests the existence of an azepine-derived pyrrole-modified porphyrins (11, 12).     

Some reactions of porphyrins

I thought that it might be of interest to fellow porphyrin workers to hear about some reactions which have not been published, but date back to 1953.     

Oxidative chemistry of fluorescent dyes: implications in the detection of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species

HE (hydroethidine), a widely used fluorescent dye for detecting intracellular superoxide, undergoes specific oxidation and hydroxylation reactions. The reaction between HE and O2?- (superoxide radical) yields a diagnostic marker product, 2-hydroxyethidium. This is contrary to the popular notion that O2?- oxidizes HE to form ethidium. HE, however, undergoes a non-specific oxidation to form ethidium in the presence of other oxidants (hydroxyl radical, peroxynitrite and perferryl iron) and other dimeric products. The mitochondria-targeted HE analogue Mito-SOX? undergoes the same type of oxidative chemistry to form products similar to those formed from HE. On the basis of the oxidative chemical mechanism of HE and Mito-SOX?, we conclude that flurorescence microscopy or related techniques are not sufficient to measure the superoxide-specific hydroxylated products. HPLC methodologies are required to separate and identify these products. Peroxynitrite reacts rapidly and stoichiometrically with boronates to form specific products. Assays using fluorescent-based boronate probes will be more reliable for peroxynitrite determination than those using either dichlorodihydrofluorescein or dihydrorhodamine.     

Soil chemistry,elemental profiles and elemental distribution in nickel hyperaccumulator species from New Caledonia

Plant and Soil - This study aimed to establish elemental profiles and to spatially resolve the elemental distribution in five New Caledonian woody Ni hyperaccumulator plant species (Geissois...     

Effect of N-alkyl substituents on the DNA binding properties of meso-tetrakis (4-N-alkylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrins and their nickel derivatives

Resonance Raman, NMR, and visible spectroscopies, as well as viscosity and equilibrium dialysis studies were used to assess the effect of the N-alkyl substituent of meso-tetrakis(4-N-alkylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin cations on DNA binding. The DNAs studied include the native DNA, calf thymus DNA (CT DNA), the synthetic polynucleotides [poly(dGdC)]2 and [poly(dAdT)]2, and the oligonucleotide d(TATACGTATA)2. Both the porphyrins and the metalloporphyrins containing Ni(II) were examined with the N-alkyl = propyl (TPrpyP(4) and NiTPrpyP(4)) and 2-hydroxyethyl (TEtOHpyP(4) and NiTEtOHpyP(4)). The results were compared to those from the parent porphyrins with the N-methyl substituent (TMpyP(4) and NiTMpyP(4)). For almost all the comparisons made, the new porphyrin cations gave results very similar to those for the TMpyP(4) species. The resonance Raman study indicated that for the three DNA polymers all the Ni species were in the four-coordinate form when bound to all three polymers. It is suggested that both TPrpyP(4) and TEtOHpyP(4) bind to GC regions of DNA in the same intercalative manner as TMpyP(4) with the N-alkyl substituent extended into the solvent. For AT regions of DNA, the binding of TPrpyP(4) and TEtOHpyP(4) is nonintercalative, as found previously for TMpyP(4). The NiPrpy(4) and NiTEtOHpyP(4) cations bind to these polymers in a similar manner to the apo-porphyrins. The similar Raman spectral changes for the three Ni porphyrins upon addition of [poly(dAdT)]2 suggest that partial intercalation is not occurring because models indicate that it would be difficult to accommodate the bulkier N-alkyl substituents.     

Rhizosphere chemistry and above-ground elemental fractionation of nickel hyperaccumulator species from Weda Bay (Indonesia)

Plant and Soil - We studied the effects of Phacelia tanacetifolia, increasingly used as a cover-crop species in arable agricultural systems, upon soil structural properties in the context of two...     

Biosynthesis of porphyrins. II

A mechanism for the biosynthesis of uroporphyrinogen III, consistent with recent experimental results is proposed as follows: Four porphobilinogen (PBG) units form a chain by a succession of rearrangements of a methylene group derived from the unit which ultimately becomes ring D. Three PBG units (rings A, B, C) are incorporated intact. The methylene group is anchored to the enzyme during three condensations and rearrangements until cyclization of the tetrapyrrole chain produces uroporphyrinogen III.     

Ferrochelatase and N-alkylated porphyrins

Summary The final step in heme synthesis is catalyzed by the mitochondrial enzyme, ferrochelatase. Characterization of this enzyme has been complicated by a number of factors including the dependence of enzyme activity on lipids. Purification of ferrochelatase from rat and bovine sources has been achieved only relatively recently using blue Sepharose CL-6B chromatography. When 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydro-2,4,6-trimethylpyridine (DDC) is given to animals, it produces a hepatic porphyria resembling human variegate porphyria thus providing an experimental system in which to study this disease. DDC has been found to cause the accumulation of a green pigment, identified as N-methyl protoporphyrin IX (N-MePP), which is a potent inhibitor of ferrochelatase. The source of the N-methyl substituent of N-MePP was found to be the 4-methyl group of DDC. Considerable evidence indicates that the protoporphyrin IX moiety of N-MePP originates from the heme moiety of cytochrome P-450 and that DDC is a suicide substrate for this hemoprotein. Some studies suggest that cytochrome P-450 isozymes differ in their susceptibility to destruction by DDC and its 4-alkyl analogues. Griseofulvin has also been reported to inhibit hepatic ferrochelatase in rodents but not in the 17-day old chick embryo nor in hepatocyte culture systems. Thus, the mechanism by which griseofulvin produces an experimental porphyria in chick embryo liver cell culture is different from that for rodents.     

Conjugates of porphyrins with carbohydrates

The methods of synthesis and properties of prophyrins covalently linked with carbohydrates are considered. Special attention is paid to the prospects of using this class of compounds as photosensitizers in photodynamic cancer therapy.     

Interactions with glutathione S-transferases of porphyrins used in photodynamic therapy and naturally occurring porphyrins.

Several naturally occurring porphyrins and porphyrins used in photodynamic therapy inhibit glutathione S-transferase isoenzymes either purified from rat liver or lung or in cytosol from normal and from cancerous (Morris 7288C hepatoma) liver. Although differences occur in the type and amount of transferases in normal and cancerous liver and in the liver of rats bearing an extrahepatic tumour, these enzymes are potential binding sites for porphyrins. Porphyrin structure is an important factor in determining the affinity of binding, as shown by the relative inhibitory effectiveness. Of the dicarboxylic porphyrins in the mixture used clinically, OO'-diacetylhaematoporphyrin and monohydroxyethylmonovinyldeuteroporphyrin are more effective inhibitors than haematoporphyrin and protoporphyrin IX. Of the naturally occurring porphyrins the order of effectiveness is protoporphyrin IX (dicarboxylic) greater than coproporphyrin (tetracarboxylic) greater than uroporphyrin (octacarboxylic) and type I greater than type III isomers of both uroporphyrin and coproporphyrin, and the synthetic tetra-meso-phenylporphinetetrasulphonate is a better inhibitor (apparent Ki = 250 nM) than coproporphyrin, which contains a comparable number of negative charges. In addition, iron-porphyrin chelates are more effective inhibitors of the transferases, with 25-fold decrease in Ki value, than the free porphyrins. These results indicate that one means whereby porphyrins accumulate in tissues is the occupation of intracellular binding sites, such as the transferases. Since porphyrins inhibit the activity of these important detoxifying enzymes, there will be metabolic consequences to the cell.