A population study of bats of the Genus Plecotus

In November 1960, bat colonies were found in the roof of the research station, and an ecological study began of the largest, a Plecotus colony. That colony was at first thought to consist solely of P. auritus but, in 1964, the presence of P. austriacus was confirmed, and several of the latter had been ringed early in 1961. Because of this, it has been necessary to present, here, the combined results for the two species. Population studies revealed that the colony size was constant and consisted of 36 bats of which 23 were females. Overall 38% were males but, of the juveniles, 46% were males. The survival rate for the colony as a whole was 0.750, but the mean life expectation for females was 4.2 years and for males 3.7 years. The life-span was thought to be in excess of 16 years. Initial capture rate of 0.715 remained constant throughout the five-year period, while the recapture rate fell by a factor of 0.30. This was attributed to sampling disturbance and not due to ringing. Mating was found to occur equally in spring and autumn. Males became mature in their first year and females in their second. The mean spring and autumn weights for mature males were generally 1.5g less than the corresponding mature female weights, and juvenilesare approximately 1.0 g less than these. Climatic effects on the bats were demonstrated with particular reference to wind velocity. This work is beingcontinued.     

Mitochondrial phylogeography of the long-eared bats (Plecotus) in the Mediterranean Palaearctic and Atlantic Islands

Long-eared bats of the genus Plecotus are widespread and common over most of the western Palaearctic. Based on recent molecular evidence, they proved to represent a complex of several cryptic species, with three new species being described from Europe in 2002. Evolutionary relationships among the different lineages are still fragmentary because of the limited geographic coverage of previous studies. Here we analyze Plecotus mitochondrial DNA sequences from the entire Mediterranean region and Atlantic Islands. Phylogenetic reconstructions group these western Palaearctic Plecotus into two major clades which split at least 5 Myr ago and that are each subdivided into further subgroups. An 'auritus group' includes the traditional P. auritus species and its sister taxon P. macrobullaris (=P. alpinus) plus related specimens from the Middle East. P. auritus and P. macrobullaris have broadly overlapping distributions in Europe, although the latter is apparently more restricted to mountain ranges. The other major clade, the 'austriacus group,' includes the European species P. austriacus and at least two other related taxa from North Africa (including P. teneriffae from the Canary Islands), the Balkans and Anatolia (P. kolombatovici). The sister species of this 'austriacus group' is P. balensis, an Ethiopian endemic. Phylogenetic reconstructions further suggest that P. austriacus reached Madeira during its relatively recent westward expansion through Europe, while the Canary Islands were colonized by a North African ancestor. Although colonization of the two groups of Atlantic Islands by Plecotus bats followed very distinct routes, neither involved lineages from the 'auritus group.' Furthermore, the Strait of Gibraltar perfectly segregates the distinct lineages, which confirms its key role as a geographic barrier. This study also stresses the biogeographical importance of the Mediterranean region, and particularly of North Africa, in understanding the evolution of the western Palaearctic biotas.     

Food habits of northern (Eptesicus nilssoni) and brown long-eared (Plecotus auritus) bats in Sweden

Food habits of sympatric northern and brown long-eared bats were examined by analysis of droppings collected in six maternity roosts of each species. Relatively large, nocturnal flying insects such as moths (Lepidoptera), June-beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), crane-flies (Diptera: Tipulidae) and caddis-flies (Trichoptera), were eaten by both bat species, representing 47% (by volume) of the northern and 57% of the long-eared bat's diet. Small dipterans were important food items for the northern bat (47% of the diet) but not for the long-eared bat, which instead consumed large amounts of diurnal or predominantly non-flying taxa such as blow-flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae), earwigs (Dermaptera), spiders (Araneae) and harvestmen (Opiliones) (40% of the diet). The difference in food selection by the two species is probably due to the different foraging strategies used.     

Effects of body mass and reproduction on the basal metabolic rate of brown long-eared bats (Plecotus auritus)

We measured basal metabolic rate (BMR) of nonreproductive and of breeding (pregnant and lactating) female brown long-eared bats (Plecotus auritus) to investigate the effects of intra- and interindividual variation in body mass and of reproduction on metabolism. The BMR of six nonreproductive females was measured between five and seven times at approximately 2-wk intervals over a period of 2.5 mo. There was a highly significant effect (P<0.001) of body mass on BMR of these nonreproductive females. The pooled within-individual scaling exponent (1.88) significantly exceeded the established mammalian interspecific exponent (0.75). In addition, we made single observations on 14 nonreproductive females to establish the effects of differences in mass between individuals. The mean BMR across all 14 individuals was 82 mW (+/-24 SD). There was a significant positive relationship between BMR and body mass across these individuals (r2=0.39), with a between-individual scaling exponent of 0.75. Inter- and intraindividual effects of mass on BMR were combined in a regression analysis that included mean body mass and deviation from mean mass on any given day as predictors. This regression model explained 55% of the variation in BMR. We made longitudinal measurements of BMR throughout reproduction and compared these with the predicted BMR of nonreproductive bats of the same body mass. Reproductive females exhibited temporal flexibility in BMR. BMR during pregnancy increased on a whole-animal basis but was significantly lower (by, on average, 15%) than BMR predicted for nonreproductive females of the same mass. Over a period of 1-75 d following birth, whole-animal BMR was greater than that during pregnancy, even though body mass declined after parturition. Hence, postbirth BMR was greater than the level predicted for nonreproductive females of the same mass. This study indicates that the scaling of BMR with body mass differs significantly within and between individuals and that there is a reduction of BMR in pregnancy and an elevation of BMR during lactation.     

Conflicting molecular phylogenies of European long-eared bats (Plecotus) can be explained by cryptic diversity

Conflicting phylogenetic signals of two data sets that analyse different portions of the same molecule are unexpected and require an explanation. In the present paper we test whether (i) differential evolution of two mitochondrial genes or (ii) cryptic diversity can better explain conflicting results of two recently published molecular phylogenies on the same set of species of long-eared bats (genus Plecotus). We sequenced 1714bp of three mitochondrial regions (16S, ND1, and D-loop) of 35 Plecotus populations from 10 European countries. A likelihood ratio test revealed congruent phylogenetic signals of the three data partitions. Our phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the existence of a previously undetected Plecotus lineage caused the incongruities of previous studies. This lineage is differentiated on the species level and lives in sympatry with its sister lineage, Plecotus auritus, in Switzerland and Northern Italy. A molecular clock indicates that all European Plecotus species are of mid or late Pliocene origin. Plecotus indet. was previously described as an intergrade between P. auritus and Plecotus austriacus since it shares morphological characters with both. It is currently known from elevations above 800 m a.s.l. in the Alps, the Dinarian Alps and the Pindos mountains in Greece. Since we could demonstrate that incongruities of two molecular analyses simply arose from the mis-identification of one lineage, we conclude that molecular phylogenetic analyses do not free systematists from a thorough inclusion of morphological and ecological data.     

The influence of body condition on sexual development of male Brown long-eared bats (Plecotus auritus) in the wild

The relationship between sexual maturity and body condition was examined in a sample of 57 male Brown long-eared bats ( Plecolus auritus ) captured in autumn 1984 from nursery roosts in north-east Scotland (57°N). A direct relationship was found between reproductive status, which was established by external examination of the genitalia, and body weight. No such relationship was established between reproductive status and forearm length. A strong direct relationship was found between reproductive status and an index of body condition (body weight/forearm length). Three of the males examined had distended epididymides, suggesting they were filled with spermatozoa, and that the bats concerned had recently undergone spermatogenesis.
Reproductive status also varied between maternity roosts. Bats from roosts in areas with a high proportion of tree cover were more sexually developed, and in better body condition, than bats from roosts in areas with less tree cover.     

Use of lamplit roads by foraging bats in southern England

Roads illuminated by white streetlamps attracted three times more foraging bats (mostly Pipistrellus pipistrellus ) than did roads lit by orange streetlamps or unlit roads (3.2, 1.2 and 0.7 bat passes/km, respectively). More insects flew around white lamps than around orange lamps (mean 0.67 and 0.083 insects per lamp, respectively). The mean number of bat passes recorded in any 1-km section of road was positively correlated to the number of white streetlamps along the section, and also, independently, to the amount of trees and hedgerows. Bat activity was not related to the number of houses along the road, ambient temperature or cloud cover. The attractive effect of the lamps on the bats was diminished in windy weather.     

Identification of a novel coronavirus in bats

Exotic wildlife can act as reservoirs of diseases that are endemic in the area or can be the source of new emerging diseases through interspecies transmission. The recent emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) highlights the importance of virus surveillance in wild animals. Here, we report the identification of a novel bat coronavirus through surveillance of coronaviruses in wildlife. Analyses of the RNA sequence from the ORF1b and S-gene regions indicated that the virus is a group 1 coronavirus. The virus was detected in fecal and respiratory samples from three bat species (Miniopterus spp.). In particular, 63% (12 of 19) of fecal samples from Miniopterus pusillus were positive for the virus. These findings suggest that this virus might be commonly circulating in M. pusillus in Hong Kong.     

A preliminary revision of the genus Plecotus (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) based on genetic and morphological results

The phylogenetic relationships within the genus Plecotus were assessed using molecular as well as morphological methods. With only three species missing, our study is based on an almost comprehensive taxonomic sampling. The genetic analysis comprised 151 individuals from throughout the range. Sequences of two mitochondrial sections, parts of the 16S rRNA gene (16S) and of the control region (CR) were analysed. The morphological analysis of cranial and external characters comprised 697 individuals, including 10 holotypes and one lectotype. Data from 15 craniometric characters of 442 specimens were used in the multivariate analyses. The molecular data identified nine primary clades representing 11 species, 10 of which could be assigned to described taxa, whereas one was described as a new species, Plecotus strelkovi Spitzenberger sp. nov. The tree based on 16S revealed two major lineages, one consisting of only one primary clade restricted to the Mediterranean, the other consisting of eight primary clades representing Eurasian taxa. The morphological analysis revealed five additional species, two of them not described. Together with the recently described P. taivanus, P. sardus and P. balensis, which were not included in our analysis, the genus Plecotus comprises at least 19 more or less cryptic species. Phylogenetic and phenetic analyses resulted in similar but not completely concordant arrangements of the species. The proposed classification relies mainly on the tree based on 16S sequences. The current distribution indicates that 16 species can be linked to arboreal refugia, three to eremial refugia. We assume that speciation within the gleaning, rather slow flying long‐eared bats is due to a multitude of disruption and isolation processes within a formerly continuous range of the broad‐leaved Arcto‐Tertiary forest in which Plecotus probably originated. An exact calibrated molecular dating of the splits is not possible. The Early Oligocene age of the presumed ancestor of the Plecotini and a correlation of the molecular diversifications with palaeogeographic reconstructions suggest that the divergence of the two major lineages may have occurred already during the Middle Miocene, 14.5 Mya.     

An immunohistochemical study of gut endocrine cells in two species of insectivorous vespertilinid bats (Chiroptera: Pipistrellus abramus and Plecotus auritus sacrimontis)

11 endocrine cell types immunoreactive for either 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), somatostatin, gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), motilin, secretin, neurotensin, pancreatic glucagon, enteroglucagon or bovine pancreatic polypeptide (BPP) were found in gastrointestinal tract of 2 species of insectivorous bats. 5 of these 11 types of endocrine cells were located in the stomach and all 11 types of endocrine cells were found in the intestine. However, the distribution and relative frequency of each immunoreactive endocrine cell varied among the cell types and between the 2 species of bats examined. In Brunner's glands, gastrin- and 5-HT-immunoreactive cells were detected very rarely in Pipistrellus and only occasionally in Plecotus. The present results obtained from the insectivorous bats were compared with those of the sanguivorous vampire bats.     

Phylogenetics and biogeography of the broad-nosed bats, genus Platyrrhinus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae)

The Neotropical broad-nosed bats, genus Platyrrhinus, represent a well-defined monophyletic group of 14 recognized species. A recent study of morphological characters confirmed Platyrrhinus monophyly and species diagnosis, but offered little support to their intra-specific relationships. We conducted phylogenetic analyses of the genus, using dense taxonomic sampling in combination with four gene sequences representing both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA transmission systems. Our aim was to elucidate the phylogenetic structure among species, using the resulting 3341 bp of DNA. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference analyses produced similar topologies that confirm the monophyly of the genus Platyrrhinus and strongly support many previously unrecognized groups. Paraphyly of Platyrrhinus helleri and the unclear position of P. brachycephalus in the clades were also apparent in the data. Our biogeographical analysis suggests a Brazilian Shield origin for Platyrrhinus, followed by subsequent radiations of lineages in the Amazon Basin and Andes. Secondary dispersal from Amazonian and Andean centers is responsible for the Platyrrhinus inhabiting the Guianan Shield and the Pacific lowlands and Central America, respectively.     

Factors affecting the distribution pattern of bats in Uppland, central Sweden

Bats were surveyed and insects were trapped in several different habitats to test the hypothesis that insect abundance and types are the most important factors affecting the regional distribution of bats. A bat community of ten species dominated by Eptesicus nilssoni and Pipistrellus pipistrellus was analysed. The results show that the general pattern of bat distribution in different habitats, and the seasonal changes in habitat utilization, could be explained in terms of the abundance of swarming insects, mainly chironomids. Deciduous woodland near water provided essential habitat in early summer for each bat species. Later on, in July, all species spread out to many different habitats. In autumn street-lamps were an important factor affecting bat distribution.     

Selective isolation and distribution of the genus Planomonospora in soils

For the screening of bioactive compounds and study of global distribution, a selective isolation method for Planomonospora strains by centrifugation from soil is examined. Planomonospora strains produced characteristic sporangia on the humic acid-trace salts gellan gum medium (pH 9.0) so that this genus was readily recognized on the isolation plate. High yields of motile spores were obtained by using a flooding solution containing 0.1% skim milk in 5 mM N-cyclohexyl-2-amino-ethanesulfonic acid (pH 9.0) followed by incubating the preparation at 32 degreesC for 90 min, centrifuging it at 1000 x g for 10 min, and further incubation at 32 degreesC for 60 min after centrifugation. By combining the techniques described above, we isolated 246 Planomonospora strains from 137 of the 1200 soil samples examined. Ninety-four percent of these strains were recovered from neutral to slightly alkaline soils (pH 7.0 to 9.0). Strains of P. venezuelensis group were obtained from 13 soil samples (1.1%), which were collected in Bolivia, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, India, Japan, New Caledonia, and Turkey. Strains of this group appear widely distributed in the soil of tropical to temperate regions. To our knowledge, this is the first record that strains of this group have been isolated from a location other than Venezuela.     

Past and present distribution of the genus Capra in Greece

The Alpine ibex Capra ibex and the wild goat Capra aegagrus are the only caprids known to have existed in the Balkan Peninsula. The agrimi is a feral primitive form of the domestic goat Capra hircus but may constitute an island subspecies of C. aegagrus endemic to Crete, Greece. Here, the distribution of C. ibex and C. aegagrus in this southernmost Balkan country was reviewed for the period from Middle Pleistocene until today through a scientific and historical document search. Such knowledge should provide directions to future conservation plans for these species and aid in tracing the origins of agrimi. Fossil locations indicate that both species lived in this country at elevations of similar altitude (≥10–?≤?2,497 m a.s.l.). C. ibex colonised Greece naturally, perhaps, not earlier than 126,000 years ago. It was spread over most of the mainland (36–41° N and 20–24° E) where from it disappeared after 5600 BC due to hunting. C. aegagrus constituted an exotic in Europe. Man introduced it to insular and mainland Greece (between 35–40° N and 19–26° E) from around 8600 and 7000 BC, respectively. It went extinct on the mainland probably before 6000 BC. Only C. ibex should, therefore, be restored to its former Balkan ranges. This review provides further support for the wild origin hypothesis for agrimi.     

Seasonal distribution of psychiatric births in England

There is general consensus that season of birth influences the risk of developing psychiatric conditions later in life. We aimed to investigate whether the risk of schizophrenia (SC), bipolar affective disorder (BAD) and recurrent depressive disorder (RDD) is influenced by month of birth in England to a similar extent as other countries using the largest cohort of English patients collected to date (n = 57,971). When cases were compared to the general English population (n = 29,183,034) all diseases showed a seasonal distribution of births (SC p = 2.48E-05; BAD p = 0.019; RDD p = 0.015). This data has implications for future strategies of disease prevention.