A complex containing the CCR4 and CAF1 proteins is involved in mRNA deadenylation in Drosophila

The CCR4-NOT complex is the major enzyme catalyzing mRNA deadenylation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We have identified homologs for almost all subunits of this complex in the Drosophila genome. Biochemical fractionation showed that the two likely catalytic subunits, CCR4 and CAF1, were associated with each other and with a poly(A)-specific 3' exonuclease activity. In Drosophila, the CCR4 and CAF1 proteins were ubiquitously expressed and present in cytoplasmic foci. Individual knock-down of several potential subunits of the Drosophila CCR4-NOT complex by RNAi in tissue culture cells led to a lengthening of bulk mRNA poly(A) tails. Knock-down of two individual subunits also interfered with the rapid deadenylation of Hsp70 mRNA during recovery from heat shock. Similarly, ccr4 mutant flies had elongated bulk poly(A) and a defect in Hsp70 mRNA deadenylation. A minor increase in bulk poly(A) tail length was also observed in Rga mutant flies, which are affected in the NOT2 subunit. The data show that the CCR4-NOT complex is conserved in Drosophila melanogaster and plays a role in general and regulated mRNA deadenylation.     

Three genes encode distinct AP33 proteins involved in Trichomonas vaginalis cytoadherence

Adherence to host cells is essential for the initiation and maintenance of infection by mucosal pathogens. The protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis colonizes the human urogenital tract via four surface proteins (AP65, AP51, AP33 and AP23). To characterize AP33 further, six cDNA clones were examined. Restriction mapping indicated that the six clones represented three similar genes. Southern analysis confirmed the existence of three single-copy AP33 genes and suggested a semi-conservative genomic arrangement between T. vaginalis isolates. Analysis of full-length sequences determined that each contained a 930 bp open reading frame encoding a protein of approximately 33 000 Da. Sequence comparisons revealed a high degree of identity at both the DNA and the protein levels. N-terminal protein sequencing established the presence of leader peptides. Each of the three full-length recombinant proteins had a predicted pI of approximately 10, which was verified experimentally for the T. vaginalis AP33 adhesin. A database search revealed that AP33 had significant identity to the succinyl-CoA synthetase α-subunit of several different organisms and virtually 100% identity to the reported T. vaginalis subunit. Unlike commercially purchased enzyme, the recombinant proteins retained adhesive properties equal to the natural T. vaginalis AP33. The characteristics of the AP33 protein are similar to those of the other adhesins and emphasize a complex host–parasite relationship.     

The human Rab genes encode a family of GTP-binding proteins related to yeast YPT1 and SEC4 products involved in secretion

Seven cDNA clones corresponding to the rab1, rab2, rab3A, rab3B, rab4, rab5, and rab6 genes were isolated from a human pheochromocytoma cDNA library. They encode 23-25 kDa polypeptides which share approximately 30-50% homology and belong to the ras superfamily. The rab1, rab2, rab3A, and rab4 proteins are the human counterparts of the rat rab gene products that we have previously characterized. Comparison of the seven human rab proteins with the yeast YPT1 (YPT1p) and SEC4 (SEC4p) proteins reveals highly significant sequence similarities. H-rab1p shows 75% amino acid identity with YPT1p and may be therefore considered as its human counterpart. The other proteins share approximately 40% homology with YPT1p and SEC4p. The homology (approximately 30%) between these rab proteins and p21ras is restricted to the four conserved domains involved in the GTP/GDP binding. Human rab proteins were produced in Escherichia coli. Large amounts of rab proteins in soluble form can be extracted and purified without the use of detergents. All six proteins bind GTP and exhibit GTPase activities. A possible involvement of the rab proteins in secretion is discussed.     

The rhombotin gene family encode related LIM-domain proteins whose differing expression suggests multiple roles in mouse development.

The rhombotin (RBTN1 or Ttg-1) gene was first identified at a chromosome translocation in a T-cell acute leukaemia and later used to isolate two related genes (RBTN2 or Ttg-2 and RBTN3). Complete characterization of these genes in man and mouse shows that all three encode cysteine-rich proteins with typical LIM domains. RBTN1 and RBTN3-derived proteins have 98% identity in the LIM domains but are located on separate chromosomes in man and in mouse while RBTN1 and RBTN2, both located on human chromosome 11p but are on separate chromosomes in mouse, are only 48% identical in this part of the protein. The exon organization of RBTN1 and RBTN3 genes are similar, both having an intron, absent from the RBTN2 gene, in the LIM2-encoding region. The remarkable similarity between rbtn-1 and rbtn-3 proteins is parallelled in their expression patterns in mouse development, since both genes show high expression in restricted areas of the brain, but little lymphoid expression. rbtn-2 expression, however, is more ubiquitous. This gene shows a low level of thymus expression but high expression in fetal liver, adult spleen and B-cell lines, consistent with a role in B-cell development. These results suggest multiple cellular targets for the action of these proteins during development.     

Two early genes of bacteriophage T5 encode proteins containing an NTP-binding sequence motif and probably involved in DNA replication, recombination and repair

It is demonstrated, by computer-assisted analysis, that T5 bacteriophage early genes D10 and D13 encode proteins containing the purine NTP-binding sequence motif. The D10 gene product is shown to be a member of a recently characterized superfamily of (putative) DNA and RNA helicases. The D13 gene product is related at a statistically significant level, to the gene 46 product of bacteriophage T4 which is a component of an exonuclease involved in phage DNA replication, recombination and repair. A lower but also significant degree of sequence similarity was detected between the gene D12 product of T5 and the gene 47 product of T4, the second component of the same nuclease. It is hypothesized that both D10 and D13 gene products of T5 might be NTPases, possibly DNA-dependent, mediating NTP-consuming steps during phage DNA replication, recombination and/or repair.     

Grunge, related to human Atrophin-like proteins, has multiple functions in Drosophila development

We have carried out a genetic screen designed to isolate regulators of teashirt expression. One of these regulators is the Grunge gene, which encodes a protein with motifs found in human arginine-glutamic acid dipeptide repeat, Metastasis-associated-like and Atrophin-1 proteins. Grunge is the only Atrophin-like protein in Drosophila, whereas several exist in humans. We provide evidence that Grunge is required for the proper regulation of teashirt but also has multiple activities in fly development. First, Grunge is crucial for correct segmentation during embryogenesis via a failure in the repression of at least four segmentation genes known to regulate teashirt. Second, Grunge acts positively to regulate teashirt expression in proximoventral parts of the leg. Grunge has other regulatory functions in the leg, including the patterning of ventral parts along the entire proximodistal axis and the proper spacing of bristles in all regions.     

Midkine and pleiotrophin: two related proteins involved in development,survival, inflammation and tumorigenesis

Midkine (MK) and pleiotrophin (PTN) are low molecular weight proteins with closely related structures. They are mainly composed of two domains held by disulfide bridges, and there are three antiparallel beta-sheets in each domain. MK and PTN promote the growth, survival, and migration of various cells, and play roles in neurogenesis and epithelial mesenchymal interactions during organogenesis. A chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan, protein-tyrosine phosphatase zeta (PTPzeta), is a receptor for MK and PTN. The downstream signaling system includes ERK and PI3 kinase. MK binds to the chondroitin sulfate portion of PTPzeta with high affinity. Among the various chondroitin sulfate structures, the E unit, which has 4,6-disulfated N-acetylgalactosamine, provides the strongest binding site. The expression of MK and PTN is increased in various human tumors, making them promising as tumor markers and as targets for tumor therapy. MK and PTN expression also increases upon ischemic injury. MK enhances the migration of inflammatory cells, and is involved in neointima formation and renal injury following ischemia. MK is also interesting from the viewpoints of the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, increasing the efficiency of in vitro development, and the prevention of HIV infection.     

pc1 and psc1, zebrafish homologs of Drosophila Polycomb and Posterior sex combs,encode nuclear proteins capable of complex interactions

Drosophila Polycomb group proteins are thought to form multimeric nuclear complexes that are responsible for stable transmission of repressed states of gene expression during the proliferation of differentiating embryos. In this study, we cloned, sequenced, and characterized two Polycomb group homologs, designated pc1 and psc1, in zebrafish. Amino acid sequence analyses determined that pc1 is a structural homolog of Drosophila Polycomb and that psc1 is a homolog of Drosophila Posterior sex combs. Northern blots and whole-mount in situ hybridization revealed that pc1 and psc1 had overlapping expression patterns at successive stages of embryogenesis. Immunocytochemistry localized both Pc1 and Psc1 protein in blastomere nuclei. Pull-down assays and two-hybrid system deletion analyses showed that these proteins were capable of homotypic and heterotypic interactions and identified the regions required for these interactions. The evidence supports the idea that zebrafish Polycomb group proteins, like those of other species, form nuclear complexes with compositions that may vary in a spatio-temporal manner during development.     

Interaction of bHLH-PAS proteins involved in juvenile hormone reception in Drosophila

The Methoprene-tolerant (Met) bHLH-PAS gene is involved in juvenile hormone (JH) action in Drosophila melanogaster as a likely component of a JH receptor. We expressed Met in Drosophila S2 cells and explored for MET partners using pull-down assays. MET-MET interaction was found to occur. The germ-cell expressed (gce) gene is another D. melanogaster bHLH-PAS gene with high homology to Met, and GCE formed heterodimers with MET. In the presence of JH or either of two JH agonists, MET-MET and MET-GCE formation was drastically reduced. Interaction between GCE and MET having N- or C-terminus truncations, bHLH or PAS-A domain deletions, or a point mutation in the PAS-B domain failed to occur. However, JH-dependent interaction occurred between GCE and MET having point mutations in bHLH or PAS-A. During development, changes in JH titer may alter partner binding by MET and result in different gene expression patterns.     

Differential activation of CD95-mediated apoptosis related proteins in proximal and distal tubules during rat renal development

The CD95-mediated apoptotic pathway is the best characterized of the death receptor-mediated apoptotic pathways. The present study characterized localization and expression of proteins involved in CD95-mediated apoptosis during rat renal development. Kidneys were obtained from embryonic (E) 18 and 20-day-old fetuses and postnatal (P) 1-, 3-, 5-, 7-, 14-, and 21-day-old pups. Immunohistochemical characterization revealed that CD95, FasL and cleaved caspase-3 were strongly expressed in proximal tubules and weakly expressed in distal tubules, but that expression of caspase-8 in distal tubules was stronger than that in proximal tubules. Results from terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assays showed that levels of apoptosis in proximal tubules slowly increased after E18, while those of distal tubules slowly decreased after P5. Western blotting demonstrated that expression of CD95, FasL and FADD was very weak during embryonic development, but rapidly increased at P14. Expression of cleaved caspase-3 was maintained at high levels after P1, while caspase-8 expression gradually reached a peak at P7. Results from this study reveal that the CD95-mediated apoptotic pathway is a key driver of apoptosis in proximal tubules during late postnatal kidney development in rats and suggest that apoptosis in distal tubules is mediated by a different apoptotic pathway.