Ecological restoration: A new frontier for nature conservation and economics

Ecological restoration is still perceived by many conservationists, and the majority of economists, as a diversion, a delusion, and – far worse – a waste of money. In this paper we point out that restoration is in fact complementary not only to nature conservation but also to sustainable, equitable socio-economic development. This is because restoring and augmenting the natural capital base generates jobs and improves livelihoods and the quality of life of all in the economy.

In developing countries, where most biodiversity hotspots occur, both conservation of nature and the restoration of degraded ecosystems will find local support only if they are clearly linked to socio-economic development. Conversely, sound socio-economic development in the environmentally damaged portions of those countries undoubtedly will require ecological restoration of the natural capital base. Nature conservation, ecological restoration, and sustainable economic development policies should therefore be planned, budgeted and executed conjointly.     

Climate change-integrated conservation strategies

Aim Conservation strategies currently include little consideration of climate change. Insights about the biotic impacts of climate change from biogeography and palaeoecology, therefore, have the potential to provide significant improvements in the effectiveness of conservation planning. We suggest a collaboration involving biogeography, ecology and applied conservation. The resulting Climate Change‐integrated Conservation Strategies (CCS) apply available tools to respond to the conservation challenges posed by climate change. Location The focus of this analysis is global, with special reference to high biodiversity areas vulnerable to climate change, particularly tropical montane settings. Methods Current tools from climatology, biogeography and ecology applicable to conservation planning in response to climate change are reviewed. Conservation challenges posed by climate change are summarized. CCS elements are elaborated that use available tools to respond to these challenges. Results Five elements of CCS are described: regional modelling; expanding protected areas; management of the matrix; regional coordination; and transfer of resources. Regional modelling uses regional climate models, biotic response models and sensitivity analysis to identify climate change impacts on biodiversity at a regional scale appropriate for conservation planning. Expansion of protected areas management and systems within the planning region are based on modelling results. Management of the matrix between protected areas provides continuity for processes and species range shifts outside of parks. Regional coordination of park and off‐park efforts allows harmonization of conservation goals across provincial and national boundaries. Finally, implementation of these CCS elements in the most biodiverse regions of the world will require technical and financial transfer of resources on a global scale. Main conclusions Collaboration across disciplines is necessary to plan conservation responses to climate change adequately. Biogeography and ecology provide insights into the effects of climate change on biodiversity that have not yet been fully integrated into conservation biology and applied conservation management. CCS provide a framework in which biogeographers, ecologists and conservation managers can collaborate to address this need. These planning exercises take place on a regional level, driven by regional climate models as well as general circulation models (GCMs), to ensure that regional climate drivers such as land use change and mesoscale topography are adequately represented. Sensitivity analysis can help address the substantial uncertainty inherent in projecting future climates and biodiversity response.     

中国海洋生物多样性的保护和管理对策

本文全面介绍了中国海洋物种多样性的现状,并分析其受到的人类影响和主要威胁。详细阐述了国家海洋局及其下属部门在海洋生物多样性保护管理中制定的有关政策、法规及行动计划,以及海洋生物多样性的科学调查研究及海洋生态环境监测体系建设,海洋自然保护区的建设与管理,海洋生物多样性可持续利用等方面的工作和进展。同时,在生物多样性管理现状的基础上,提出了包括预警系统与事故处理能力建设、将生物多样性保护管理纳入区域经济社会发展计划、建设生物多样性管理机构及法规之间的协调机制以及基于生态系统的生物多样性管理和公众参与等若干针对性的管理对策。     

The National Trust and nature conservation: prospects for the future

The range and extent of nature conservation interests on land owned by the National Trust are reviewed and the high level of protection which can be afforded to such features is stressed. Some of the threats to such interests are examined and possible conflicts between management for nature conservation and for other Trust objectives are considered. The importance of survey and monitoring are emphasized. It is argued that nature conservationists need to adopt a view of plant communities which recognises their dynamic nature and which accepts the possibility of change. Evidence is reviewed which supports the non-equilibrium state of some communities, the impact of rare events and the importance of life history phenomena. Some possible future directions of nature conservation in the Trust are discussed.     

Characteristics of Australia's rangelands and key design issues for monitoring biodiversity

Abstract We explored the key issues that are most likely to influence any set of guiding principles for developing biodiversity monitoring programmes in Australia's rangelands. We defined the Australian rangelands and came up with an overview of their climate extremes, land‐use pressures and biodiversity loss, and then focussed on issues underpinning the design phase of any monitoring programme. Using Noss's 1990 framework of compositional, structural and functional attributes of biodiversity and its new revisions by others, we showed how the elusive, abstract concept of biodiversity can be used to identify many measurable attributes that can form a minimum and necessary set of indicators for any biodiversity monitoring task. We then described the steps in the monitoring process, with a particular focus on the reasons for monitoring biodiversity as they strongly influence the selection of indicators. We concluded by compiling a table of key issues as background information for developing guiding principles (Table 4). The list is by no means an exhaustive list for the design phase but it does indicate that considerable attention needs to be given to this phase when developing monitoring programmes. We have intentionally not addressed the equally important issues associated with the planning and delivery phases of developing a monitoring programme, as Wallace et al. and Watson and Novelly cover these in their papers in the present issue of Austral Ecology.     

汶川地震重灾区生态保护重要性评价与对策

开展生态保护重要性评价,鉴定生态保护重要地区是地震灾区恢复与重建的前提与基础。选取水土流失敏感性、生物多样性保护重要性以及水源涵养重要性这3个指标,评价了地震重灾区51个县（市区）的生态保护重要性。研究表明,生态保护极重要地区面积约为3．5×10^4km^2,约占整个研究区域面积的26．7％,主要分布于邛崃山系北部的汶川与四姑娘山地区,以及岷山山系的大部分地区;而生态保护重要地区面积约为4．6×10^4km^2,约占整个研究区域的34．5％,主要分布于评价区的西部与东北部;其余地区为生态保护一般地区。建议在灾后重建时对生态极重要地区进行严格保护,禁止开展大型开发建设活动,并控制这些地区的人口规模。另外,生态保护重要地区的开发活动应该受到限制。并通过开展生态补偿,结合正在实施的天然林保护、退耕还林与流域综合治理等生态工程措施,促进灾区生态功能的恢复。     

中国生物多样性就地保护成效与展望

生物多样性就地保护是指通过开展自然保护地体系的建立与管理, 结合自然保护地以外其他有效的基于区域的保护措施(other effective area-based conservation measures, OECMs), 从而实现物种种群及其栖息地的保护与恢复以及保障和提升生态系统服务的目标。就地保护是实现2020年全球生物多样性保护目标最为重要的措施之一。本文从自然保护地数量与面积、代表性、有效性, 以及其他生物多样性就地保护措施等方面, 整理和综述了国内外近年来的相关报道。总体来看, 我国基本建立了具有中国特色的生物多样性就地保护与管理体系, 实施了各项生物多样性保护恢复措施, 取得了一系列重大进展。自然保护地的面积和数量均呈现上升趋势, 已覆盖陆域国土面积的18%, 对一些重要生态系统及重点保护物种的保护取得了一定成效。正在建设的10处国家公园体制试点提升了部分重点物种的保护连通性。自然保护区总体管理状况相对较好, 保护了90%以上的哺乳动物和97%的兰科植物。此外, 其他有效的基于区域的保护措施亦为生物多样性就地保护贡献了民间力量。在此基础上, 本文对照《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2011-2030年)》中对“加强生物多样性就地保护”的各项要求, 分析总结了当前我国生物多样性就地保护仍然存在的问题与不足, 具体表现在以下几个方面: 自然保护地整体保护能力仍有待提升; 生物多样性保护优先区域仍然存在保护空缺; 自然保护区管理质量有待提升; 缺乏公共协商机制; 自然保护地以外的其他就地保护工作仍在探索阶段等。在此基础上, 对将来我国生物多样性就地保护提出了进一步建议与展望: (1)制定更为具体和量化的生物多样性就地保护目标; (2)加大力度减少物种受威胁程度, 特别是受关注较少的物种; (3)以保障和提升生态系统服务为目标, 提升生态系统保护修复的系统性与整体性; (4)加强自然保护地以外的生物多样性就地保护; (5)完善长期监测体系, 为生物多样性就地保护成效评估提供数据支撑。本文可为“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”特别是就地保护目标的制定与实施提供参考。     

生态恢复评价研究进展与展望： 第5届国际生态恢复学会大会会议述评

第5届国际生态恢复学会大会于2013年10月6—11日在美国威斯康星州麦迪逊召开.来自50多个国家的约1200位代表参加了本次大会,讨论了生态恢复不同领域的最新进展.会议中关于生态恢复评价的探讨主要从生态恢复评价指标体系的建立、生态恢复的评价方法、生态恢复监测与动态评价三方面展开.会议强调了生态恢复评价在生态恢复过程中的重要地位,关注了生态恢复评价研究中面临的挑战.对我国生态恢复评价研究主要有以下启示： 1)加强构建全面、综合的评价指标体系,注重评价过程的多方参与;2)注重生态恢复评价的尺度效应与尺度转换研究;3)拓展3S技术在生态恢复评价中的应用,促进生态恢复动态监测的发展;4)积极开展国际交流合作,提升我国生态恢复研究的国际影响力.
     

Developing strategies and methods for rehabilitating degraded pastures using native grasses

Summary   The purpose of this comment paper is to highlight the need for more research that aims to develop strategies and methods for establishing and maintaining native grasses in degraded pastures. Clues to finding the best strategies are linked to the vigorous debate concerning the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function, which has resonated in ecological research for more than 20 years. Studies aimed at investigating the operational validity of the 'sampling effect' hypothesis vs. the 'niche complementarity' hypothesis could provide valuable direction on how to successfully re-establish healthy and stable native pasture communities, including the number of species and functional groups needed. Once strategies have been developed, then practical methods on grazing management and sowing are also needed. In the long run, research initiatives in this direction could act to benefit the conservation of native grass diversity, while at the same time, sustain important ecological (and economic) functions such as production, nutrient cycling and resistance to invasion.     

Ecological restoration of farmland: progress and prospects

Sustainable agricultural practices in conjunction with ecological restoration methods can reduce the detrimental effects of agriculture. The Society for Ecological Restoration International has produced generic guidelines for conceiving, organizing, conducting and assessing ecological restoration projects. Additionally, there are now good conceptual frameworks, guidelines and practical methods for developing ecological restoration programmes that are based on sound ecological principles and supported by empirical evidence and modelling approaches. Restoration methods must also be technically achievable and socially acceptable and spread over a range of locations. It is important to reconcile differences between methods that favour conservation and those that favour economic returns, to ensure that conservation efforts are beneficial for both landowners and biodiversity. One option for this type of mutual benefit is the use of agri-environmental schemes to provide financial incentives to landholders in exchange for providing conservation services and other benefits. However, further work is required to define and measure the effectiveness of agri-environmental schemes. The broader potential for ecological restoration to improve the sustainability of agricultural production while conserving biodiversity in farmscapes and reducing external costs is high, but there is still much to learn, particularly for the most efficient use of agri-environmental schemes to change land use practice.     

Ecosystem service benefits of contrasting conservation strategies in a human-dominated region

The hope among policy-makers and scientists alike is that conservation strategies designed to protect biodiversity also provide direct benefits to people by protecting other vital ecosystem services. The few studies that have examined the delivery of ecosystem services by existing conservation efforts have concentrated on large, ‘wilderness’-style biodiversity reserves. However, such reserves are not realistic options for densely populated regions. Here, we provide the first analyses that compare representation of biodiversity and three other ecosystem services across several contrasting conservation strategies in a human-dominated landscape (England). We show that small protected areas and protected landscapes (restrictive zoning) deliver high carbon storage and biodiversity, while existing incentive payment (agri-environment) schemes target areas that offer little advantage over other parts of England in terms of biodiversity, carbon storage and agricultural production. A fourth ecosystem service—recreation—is under-represented by all three strategies. Our findings are encouraging as they illustrate that restrictive zoning can play a major role in protecting natural capital assets in densely populated regions. However, trade-offs exist even among the four ecosystem services we considered, suggesting that a portfolio of conservation and sustainability investments will be needed to deliver both biodiversity and the other ecosystem services demanded by society.     

上海大莲湖湖滨带湿地的生态修复

采用改变土地利用模式、水系改造和植被配置等技术开展了上海青浦大莲湖湿地修复示范工程。本文从2008年8月到2010年3月跟踪调查了土地利用方式、鸟类群落、两栖爬行类、水质等多类指标来对示范工程进行评估。结果表明,实验区生态系统的生境结构和生物多样性组成都发生了明显的变化。实验区内土地利用由主要以人工养殖鱼塘和林地为主的人工湿地(人工鱼塘占50%,林地占25%),转变为以开放性水域和乔灌草相结合的半自然状态下的自然湿地(明水面面积占30%,各类植被群落占50%,人工鱼塘完全消失),植被从只有片段化林地转变为乔木、灌木丛、草本植物及各类水生植物相结合的格局;工程后鸟类种类和数量均高于工程前(新纪录到11种鸟类),鸟类多样性指数和均匀性指数也有明显增加,其中目标鸟类——雁鸭类新增6种,种类和数量都呈显著增加;两栖爬行类种类变化不大,共记录到6科12种,但整体数量比工程前增长了59.1%;水质指标的变化也很突出,与工程前人工鱼塘相比,实验区内水体中总氮(TN)、硝态氮(NO3-N)、总磷(TP)、叶绿素a(Chla)、高锰酸钾指数(CODMn)等主要指标均有显著下降(P<0.05),水质改善显著。由此说明,修复工程改善了大莲湖湖滨带湿地的生态环境,生物多样性得到较好的恢复,呈现出良好的湿地修复效果。     

废黄河三角洲生态修复设想

生态系统退化导致生态系统为人类生存和发展提供的物品和服务功能下降,从而阻碍区域经济和社会发展。本文以废黄河三角洲为例,分析了废黄河三角洲生态系统退化的自然和人为应力以及生态系统的退化过程。针对废黄河三角洲生态现状,提出了生态修复的目标及措施,采取自然恢复和人工干预的手段,加强水生生态系统修复和生物多样性的提高,实现区域经济与生态协调发展。     

Insights from a Cross‐Disciplinary Seminar: 10 Pivotal Papers for Ecological Restoration

Restoration ecology is a deepening and diversifying field with current research incorporating multiple disciplines and infusing long‐standing ideas with fresh perspectives. We present a list of 10 recent pivotal papers exemplifying new directions in ecological restoration that were selected by students in a cross‐disciplinary graduate seminar at the University of California, Berkeley. We highlight research that applies ecological theory to improve restoration practice in the context of global change (e.g. climate modeling, evaluation of novel ecosystems) and discuss remaining knowledge gaps. We also discuss papers that recognize the social context of restoration and the coupled nature of social and ecological systems, ranging from the incorporation of cultural values and Traditional Ecological Knowledge into restoration, to the consideration of the broader impacts of markets on restoration practices. In addition, we include perspectives that focus on improving communication between social and natural scientists as well as between scientists and practitioners, developing effective ecological monitoring, and applying more integrated, whole‐landscape approaches to restoration. We conclude with insights on recurrent themes in the papers regarding planning restoration in human‐modified landscapes, application of ecological theory, improvements to restoration practice, and the social contexts of restoration. We share lessons from our cross‐disciplinary endeavor, and invite further discussion on the future directions of restoration ecology through contributions to our seminar blog site http://restecology.blogspot.com .     

从自然保护区到国家公园体制试点: 三江源国家公园环境覆盖的变化及其对两栖爬行类保护的启示

三江源地区具有丰富的高原生物多样性, 是我国重要的生态安全屏障。作为我国第一个体制试点的国家公园, 三江源国家公园将被建成青藏高原大自然保护展示和生态文化传承区。为更好地服务于三江源国家公园建设, 本研究从海拔、年均温和年降水等方面, 在环境空间上系统比较了国家公园与三江源和可可西里自然保护区的差异; 以4种两栖爬行动物即高原林蛙(Rana kukunoris)、倭蛙(Nanorana pleskei)、西藏齿突蟾(Scutiger boulengeri)和青海沙蜥(Phrynocephalus vlangalii)分布点环境条件在国家公园内外的异同为例, 探讨分布受环境制约大、扩散能力弱的物种保护在国家公园建设中可能面临的机遇和挑战。结果表明, 国家公园与已建自然保护区在地理空间上重叠较大, 但它们在自然环境上的差别很明显; 自然保护区内两栖爬行类所偏好的环境条件较多未包含在国家公园内。鉴于三江源的区位特殊性及对气候变化的敏感性, 区域内两栖爬行动物等对环境依赖性强、扩散能力弱物种的有效保护不仅有助于保持物种遗传多样性和区域生态系统的完整性, 也有利于更好地实现国家公园目标定位并服务于生态文明建设。为此, 在国家公园内, 应开展两栖爬行动物种群动态和群落结构的长期监测, 加强基础生物学研究, 掌握环境变化对两栖爬行动物分布、遗传、行为、形态、种群动态及群落可能产生的影响, 实现区域内两栖爬行动物及其类似物种在环境变化下的永续生存。     

Persistence and vulnerability: Retaining biodiversity in the landscape and in protected areas

An objective of biodiversity conservation activities is to minimize the exposure of biodiversity features to threatening processes and to ensure, as far as possible, that biodiversity persists in the landscape. We discuss how issues of vulnerability and persistence can and should be addressed at all stages of the conservation planning and implementation process. Procedures for estimating the likelihood of persistence and for measuring degrees of vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales using subjective assessments, rules of thumb and analytical and simulation models are reviewed. The application of information on vulnerability and persistence to conservation planning and management is discussed under the headings of natural dynamics, replication of protection, levels of representation, source and sink population structures, refuges and critical resources, reserve design, habitat fragmentation and levels of management.