First molecular evidence for reassessing phylogenetic affinities between genets (Genetta) and the enigmatic genet-like taxa Osbornictis, Poiana and Prionodon (Carnivora, Viverridae)

Gaubert, P., Tranier, M., Delmas, A.-S., Colyn, M. & Veron, G. (2004). First molecular evidence for reassessing phylogenetic affinities between genets ( Genetta ) and the enigmatic genet-like taxa Osbornictis , Poiana and Prionodon (Carnivora, Viverridae). — Zoologica Scripta, 33 , 117–129.
The subfamily Viverrinae is a composite group of carnivores comprising the large and plantigrade terrestrial civets ( Civettictis , Viverricula and Viverra ) and the slender and generally more arboreal genets and genet-like taxa ( Genetta , Prionodon , Poiana , Osbornictis ), both having Asiatic and African representatives. The problematic phylogenetic relationships between genets and genet-like taxa are addressed for the first time from a molecular perspective through complete cytochrome b gene sequences. We used a large taxonomic sample set including some very rare and crucial species such as Osbornictis piscivora , Poiana richardsonii (museum specimen material) and Genetta johnstoni . The results from parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood analyses do not support the monophyly of the Viverrinae and contradict previous morphological hypotheses. The Asiatic linsangs ( Prionodon spp.) are excluded from the Viverrinae and represent either a basal Feliformia or Viverridae. The other genet-like taxa constitute a strongly supported monophyletic African group, in which the African linsang (represented by Poiana richardsonii ) is a sister group to the genets. The aquatic genet Osbornictis piscivora is included within the latter clade, and the genus Osbornictis should be considered a junior synonym of Genetta . African and Asiatic terrestrial civets are monophyletic, but their phylogenetic affinities with the genet-like clade are inconclusive using our data set. On the basis of our molecular results, morphological convergences and adaptations to peculiar habitats and ways of life within genets and genet-like taxa are discussed.     

Phylogenetic systematics and tempo of evolution of the Viverrinae (Mammalia, Carnivora, Viverridae) within feliformians: implications for faunal exchanges between Asia and Africa

We reconstructed the phylogeny of the subfamily Viverrinae (Mammalia, Carnivora, Viverridae) using a approximately 3kb data set in order to reassess timing and patterns of faunal exchanges between Asia and Africa. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analyses of separated and combined matrices (cytochrome b, transthyretin intron I and IRBP exon 1 [IRBP1]) recovered all the well-supported relationships within feliformian lineages. In addition, IRBP1 supported paraphyly of genus Herpestes and contributed to the resolution of equivocal hypotheses within Viverridae, including (1) the monophyly of Viverrinae, and (2) Viverricula sister-group of the other terrestrial civets (Civettictis and Viverra). The combined analysis yielded a robust phylogeny, recovering monophyly of Prionodontidae and yielding high posterior probabilities for nodes (1) (Prionodontidae, Felidae) and (2) ((Felidae, Prionodontidae), ((Hyaenidae, (Herpestidae, Eupleridae)), Viverridae)). Using a fossil cross-validation method, we estimated the emergence of Viverridae at 34.29Myr, with a separation between the three traditional subfamilies Hemigalinae, Paradoxurinae, and Viverrinae during the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene. The terrestrial civets and the splits between (1) Civettictis and Viverra and (2) Poiana and Genetta were estimated to appear during the Middle Miocene. Parsimony- and maximum likelihood-based methods yielded unambiguous ancestral area reconstructions, including the Asian origin of the family Viverridae, the subfamily Viverrinae, the terrestrial civets and the clade (Civettictis, Viverra). On the grounds of genetic distances, morphological divergence, and divergence time estimates, we propose the erection of the subfamily Genettinae (including Genetta and Poiana). Our analyses suggested two independent migration events from Asia to Africa, during the Middle Miocene (Civettictis) and between the Late Oligocene and Middle Miocene (Genettinae). These results are in agreement with the hypothesis of Miocene routes from Asia to Africa-via the Arabian microplate-that would have involved several independent events of migrations. Couched in the context of the viverrid fossil record, our study calls for a revision of the paleontological data in order to fully appreciate the complexity of Afro-Asian faunal exchanges.     

Exhaustive sample set among Viverridae reveals the sister-group of felids: the linsangs as a case of extreme morphological convergence within Feliformia

Although molecular studies have helped to clarify the phylogeny of the problematic family Viverridae, a recent phylogenetic investigation based on cytochrome b (cyt b) has excluded the Asiatic linsangs (genus Prionodon) from the family. To assess the phylogenetic position of the Asiatic linsangs within the Feliformia, we analysed an exhaustive taxonomic sample set with cyt b and newly produced transthyretin intron I sequences (TR-I-I). TR-I-I alone and cyt b +TR-I-I combined (maximum-likelihood analysis) highly support the position of Asiatic linsangs as sister-group of the Felidae. The estimation of minimum divergence dates from molecular data suggests a splitting event ca. 33.3 million years (Myr) ago, which lends support to historical assertions that the Asiatic linsangs are "living fossils" that share a plesiomorphic morphotype with the Oligocene feliform Paleoprionodon. The African linsang is estimated to appear more than 20 Myr later and represents the sister-group of the genus Genetta. Our phylogenetic results illustrate numerous morphological convergences of "diagnostic" characters among Feliformia that might be problematic for the identification of fossil taxa. The morphotype reappearance from the Asiatic to the African linsangs suggests that the genome of the Feliformia conserved its potential ability of expression for a peculiar adaptive phenotype throughout evolution, in this case arboreality and hypercarnivory in tropical forest.     

Phylogenetic relationships of the Asian palm civets (Hemigalinae & Paradoxurinae, Viverridae, Carnivora)

The Viverridae (Mammalia, Carnivora), one of the least studied groups of carnivorans, include two subfamilies of Asian palm civets: Hemigalinae and Paradoxurinae. The relationships between and within these two subfamilies have never been thoroughly tested using an extensive molecular sample set. In this study, we gathered sequences of four genes (two mitochondrial: Cytochrome b and ND2 and two nuclear: beta-fibrinogen intron 7 and IRBP exon 1) for eight of the eleven extant species representing these two subfamilies. The results showed that: (1) the Asian palm civets (Hemigalinae and Paradoxurinae) have a single origin and form the sister-group of the (Genettinae+Viverrinae) clade, (2) the Hemigalinae (including the otter civet Cynogale bennettii) are monophyletic, (3) the Paradoxurinae are monophyletic and (4) the small-toothed palm civet (Arctogalidia trivirgata) is an early offshoot within the Paradoxurinae. Using a relaxed molecular clock analysis, the differentiation of the (Hemigalinae+Paradoxurinae) was inferred to occur in the Late Oligocene/Early Miocene.     

Evolutionary history of the Paradoxurus palm civets – a new model for Asian biogeography

Aim Using molecular data and dental features, we investigated the genetic and morphological diversity among species of palm civets in the genus Paradoxurus, with a focus on the common palm civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Carnivora, Viverridae), in order to address biogeographic scenarios and provide recommendations for a taxonomic revision. Location Asia: Pakistan to the Lesser Sunda Islands. Methods We investigated the genetic diversity within Paradoxurus using two mitochondrial (cytochrome b, control region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the β‐fibrinogen) markers. We used samples from 85 individuals of P. hermaphroditus (including 20 museum specimens) and one representative of each of the other species in the genus Paradoxurus: Paradoxurus jerdoni and Paradoxurus zeylonensis. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods, and divergence dates were estimated for the clades retrieved. Furthermore, we examined dental characters from a large series of specimens and compared the morphological variation with the molecular data. Results Our phylogenetic analyses revealed that P. hermaphroditus is paraphyletic. We identified three major lineages distributed: (1) in the Indian subcontinent, south China, Hainan and in areas above 200 m in Indochina; (2) in Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Sumatra and in areas below 200 m in Indochina; and (3) in Borneo, the Philippines and the Mentawai archipelago. Our morphological observations were congruent with these three molecular lineages. Divergence date estimates inferred a Pliocene origin for Paradoxurus (2.8–5.7 Ma), with the three main clades diversifying from the mid–Early Pliocene to the end of the Pliocene. We suggest that the flooding of the Isthmus of Kra during the Pliocene was a major event shaping the diversification of Paradoxurus palm civets. We also hypothesize that the elevational segregation of the two lineages on the mainland could have resulted from the vegetational changes that were induced by Late Pliocene glacial episodes. Main conclusions The Isthmus of Kra is a major boundary between two major lineages of P. hermaphroditus. There is a need for a taxonomic revision for P. hermaphroditus, and we suggest that this species should be split into at least three species.     

Intraguild dynamics of understudied carnivores in a human‐altered landscape

Mesocarnivores constitute a diverse and often abundant group of species, which are increasingly occupying hweigher trophic levels within multi‐use landscapes. Yet, we know relatively little about their interactions with each other, especially in human‐altered areas. Using camera trap data collected in a forestry concession in the Greater Gorongosa ecosystem of central Mozambique, we examined the spatiotemporal relationships and potential for intraguild competition among three understudied African carnivores: African civets (Civettictis civetta), bushy‐tailed mongooses (Bdeogale crassicauda), and large‐spotted genets (Genetta maculata). After accounting for habitat preferences and tolerance to anthropogenic factors, we found that African civets and bushy‐tailed mongooses avoid each other spatially and temporally. Additionally, civets and mongooses were also both more likely to use sites farther away from human settlements, possibly decreasing the total available habitat for each species if competition is driving this spatial partitioning. In contrast, we did not find evidence for spatial or temporal partitioning between large‐spotted genets and African civets, but bushy‐tailed mongooses altered their activity patterns where they co‐occurred with genets. Our study contributes to scant ecological knowledge of these mesocarnivores and adds to our understanding of community dynamics in human‐altered ecosystems.     

Trichinella britovi etiological agent of sylvatic trichinellosis in the Republic of Guinea (West Africa) and a re-evaluation of geographical distribution for encapsulated species in Africa

In West Africa, Trichinella infection was documented in humans and animals from Senegal in the 1960s, and the biological characters of one isolate showed a lower infectivity to domestic pigs and rodents when compared with that of a Trichinella spiralis pig isolate from Europe. To identify the Trichinella species present in West Africa, a survey was conducted in a total of 160 wild animals in the Republic of Guinea. Three Viverridae, one true civet (Viverra civetta) and two African palm civets (Nandinia binotata) from the Fouta Djallon Massif, Pilimini Subprefecture, were found positive by artificial digestion of muscle samples. Trichinella larvae from these three viverrids were identified as Trichinella britovi and no difference was detected in three examined sequences from these African isolates and the reference strain of T. britovi from Europe, indicating common ancestry, an historically continuous geographic distribution, and recent isolation for African and European populations. The detection of T. britovi in West Africa modifies our knowledge about the distribution of encapsulated species of Trichinella in Africa. Thus, Trichinella nelsoni is now considered to have a distribution limited to the Eastern part of the Afrotropical region from Kenya to South Africa. This provides a plausible explanation for the presence of Trichinella T8 in Namibia and South Africa, and further suggests that T. britovi could be the Trichinella species circulating among wild animals of Northern Africa.     

Pericarp structure of Leucas and related genera (Lamiaceae subfam. Lamioideae)

The pericarp has been studied in 72 taxa belonging to the genera Leucas, Leonotis, Acrotome, Otostegia and Isoleucas. Otostegia, Isoleucas and many Leucas (the Asiatic sections Astrodon, Leucas, Plagiostoma , and the African Spiculifolia, Squarrosicyme, Stachydiformis and Virgata ) have been found to agree with most other members of the subfamily Lamioideae by having high bone cells which contain crystals. Acrotome, Leonotis and most African Leucas (sections Hemistoma, Lasiocotys, Lonostoma, Neuflizeana, Ogadenia and Physoleucas ) deviate by having thin bone cells which often lack crystals, and due to their similarity, these African taxa are suggested to be closely related. The Asiatic Leucas (Ortholeucas), Plagiostoma and Astrodon also seem to form a group. Leucas milanjiana and perhaps also Leucas hyssopifolia are considered to be extraneous to Plagiostoma and to be more closely related to the section Leucas and the African Lasiocorys, Ogadenia and Physoleucas respectively.     

The phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences: evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the African spitting cobras (Serpentes: Elapidae: Naja nigricollis complex)

We use phylogenetic analysis of 1333 bp of mitochondrial DNA sequence to investigate the phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cobra-like elapid snakes, with special reference to the evolution of spitting and the phylogeography of the African spitting cobras, a radiation widespread in open vegetational formations throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Our results suggest that spitting adaptations appear to have evolved three times in cobras, but alternative scenarios cannot be rejected. The Asiatic Naja are monophyletic and originate from a single colonization of Asia from Africa. The radiation of the African spitting Naja appears to date back to the early Miocene and many speciation events in the group predate the Pliocene expansion of grasslands and the radiation of large grazing mammals in Africa. The cladogenic events in this complex appear to have been triggered by both ecological changes and tectonic events associated with the formation and expansion of the African Rift Valley. Taxonomically, our data confirm the inclusion of Boulengerina and Paranaja within Naja, and reveal a clade of African rainforest cobras including N. melanoleuca, Paranaja multifasciata and Boulengerina that constitutes the sister clade of the African open-formation non-spitting cobras. Naja nigricollis is polyphyletic, and we therefore recognize N. nigricincta as a separate species, more closely related to N. ashei and N. mossambica than to N. nigricollis.     

六种灵猫科动物的分子系统关系研究

对六种灵猫科物种线粒体12 S rRNA基因及其中四种的Cytb基因部分序列进行了测定,并从Gen-Bank获得斑林狸(Prionodon pardicolor)、熊狸(Arctictis binturong)的Cytb基因同源序列。两基因整合序列比对后长755 bp,12 S rRNA基因序列中有70个变异位点,31个简约信息位点,在Cytb基因序列中,共有120个位点呈现变异,60个简约信息位点,Cytb基因的碱基变异百分比高于12 S rRNA基因的碱基变异百分比。使用邻接法(NJ)、最大似然法(ML)重建的分子系统树显示:斑林狸从灵猫亚科中分离出来,支持灵猫亚科的多系起源,而且斑林狸可能是中国起源最早且最特化的灵猫科动物。另外,同属于灵猫亚科的大灵猫(Viverra zibe-tha)、小灵猫(Viverricula indica)聚为一支,同属于棕榈狸亚科的果子狸(Viverricula indica)、熊狸聚为姐妹群,这些与传统形态学分类观点一致。     

Out of Africa? Phylogenetic relationships between Falco biarmicus and the other hierofalcons (Aves: Falconidae)

The phylogeographic history of the lanner falcon ( Falco biarmicus ) and the phylogenetic relationships among hierofalcons ( F. biarmicus , Falco cherrug , Falco jugger and Falco rusticolus ) were investigated using mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences. Of the two non-coding mt sections tested, the control region (CR) appeared more suitable as phylogenetic marker sequence compared with the pseudo control region (ΨCR). For the comprehensive analysis samples from a broad geographic range representing all four hierofalcon species and their currently recognized subspecies were included. Moreover, samples of Falco mexicanus were analysed to elucidate its phylogenetic relationships to the hierofalcons. The sequence data indicate that this species is more closely related to Falco peregrinus than to the hierofalcons. In the DNA-based trees and in the maximum parsimony network all hierofalcons appear closely related and none of the species represents a monophyletic group. The close relationships among haplotypes suggest that the hierofalcon complex is an assemblage of morphospecies not yet differentiated in the genetic markers used in the present study and that the radiation of the four hierofalcon species took place rather recently. Based on the high intraspecific diversity found within F. biarmicus we assume an African origin of the hierofalcon complex. The observed pattern of haplotype distribution in the extant species may be due to incomplete lineage sorting of ancestral polymorphisms, and interspecific gene flow through hybridization.     

Evolution of St Helena arborescent Astereae (Asteraceae): relationships of the genera Commidendrum and Melanodendron

The cladistic relationships of endemic Commidendrum (four species) and Melanodendron (one species) from St Helena were inferred from sequences of ITS1 and ITS2 of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Despite showing a range of morphological and ecological variation, the four species of Commidendrum , C. spurium , C. robustum , C. rotundifolium , and C. rugosum , form a closely related monophyletic group with percentage sequence divergence between 0.2 and 0.9%. Melanodendron integrifolium is sister to Commidendrum indicating that the two genera may have evolved from a common ancestor that arrived in St Helena via a single dispersal event. The closest relatives of Commidendrum and Melanodendron appear to be South African, in the predominantly shrubby genus Felicia , although further sampling of South African Astereae is required. We discuss the evolution and adaptive radiation of these rare and threatened species with particular reference to the possible role of heterochrony.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 144 , 69–83.     

Population studies on the inter-α-trypsin inhibitor (ITI) polymorphism

Serum samples from four European populations — Germans from Jena, Germans from Hannover, Italians from Udine, and Slovakians from Bratislava — were tested for the inter-α-trypsin inhibitor (ITI) polymorphism. The results are compared with those reported for other European, Asiatic and African populations. Reviewing all the hitherto published ITI allele frequencies one can see that the variability among European Populations seems to be rather small, whereas Asiatic and African populations are striking by quite different distribution patterns.     

Phylogeography, genetic structure and population divergence time of cheetahs in Africa and Asia: evidence for long-term geographic isolates

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has been described as a species with low levels of genetic variation. This has been suggested to be the consequence of a demographic bottleneck 10 000–12 000 years ago (ya) and also led to the assumption that only small genetic differences exist between the described subspecies. However, analysing mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites in cheetah samples from most of the historic range of the species we found relatively deep phylogeographic breaks between some of the investigated populations, and most of the methods assessed divergence time estimates predating the postulated bottleneck. Mitochondrial DNA monophyly and overall levels of genetic differentiation support the distinctiveness of Northern‐East African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii). Moreover, combining archaeozoological and contemporary samples, we show that Asiatic cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) are unambiguously separated from African subspecies. Divergence time estimates from mitochondrial and nuclear data place the split between Asiatic and Southern African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) at 32 000–67 000 ya using an average mammalian microsatellite mutation rate and at 4700–44 000 ya employing human microsatellite mutation rates. Cheetahs are vulnerable to extinction globally and critically endangered in their Asiatic range, where the last 70–110 individuals survive only in Iran. We demonstrate that these extant Iranian cheetahs are an autochthonous monophyletic population and the last representatives of the Asiatic subspecies A. j. venaticus. We advocate that conservation strategies should consider the uncovered independent evolutionary histories of Asiatic and African cheetahs, as well as among some African subspecies. This would facilitate the dual conservation priorities of maintaining locally adapted ecotypes and genetic diversity.     

Molecular phylogeny and evolution of the Perissodactyla

The evolution of perissodactyls (rhinoceroses, tapirs, and horses) has been well studied primarily because of their extensive fossil record. Nevertheless, controversy persists regarding relationships of some of the extant taxa, reflecting inconsistencies between molecular and morphological studies. Here we examine the phylogenetic relationships of 16 living perissodactyl species by concatenating two mitochondrial and nine nuclear genes, and we estimate their divergence times using a relaxed Bayesian molecular clock approach. Our analyses recovered the monophyly of the suborders Ceratomorpha and Hippomorpha, and the families Rhinoceratidae, Tapiridae, and Equidae. We supported the early divergence of the Indian rhinoceros in the late Oligocene (26 Mya) relative to the Sumatran and African rhinoceroses, and the split of caballine (domestic horse and Przewalski's wild horse) and noncaballine equids (zebras and African and Asiatic asses) in the Pliocene (4 Mya). An important implication of this study is that Equus asinus, the African wild ass was found to be the sister taxon of Asiatic asses and zebras, diverging from the common ancestor with caballine horses 2 Mya. Rates of chromosome rearrangements were also evaluated in perissodactyls, placing a notably high rate of variation amongst equids, particularly within the zebra clade. The robust phylogenetic results presented here are relevant in terms of understanding the evolutionary history of this highly threatened group of mammals. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 163 , 1289–1303.     

Evolutionary relationships among rice species with AA genome based on SINE insertion analysis

Previous studies based on morphological and molecular markers indicated that there are two cultivated and five wild rice species within the Oryza genus with the AA genome. In the cultivated rice species, Oryza sativa, a retroposon named p-SINE1 has been identified. Some of the p-SINE1 members characterized previously showed interspecific insertion polymorphisms in the species with the AA genome. In this study, we identified new p-SINE1 members showing interspecific insertion polymorphisms from representative strains of four wild rice species with the AA genome: O. barthii, O. glumaepatula, O. longistaminata, and O. meridionalis. Some of these members were present only in strains of one species, whereas the others were present in strains of two or more species. The p-SINE1 insertion patterns in the strains of the Asian and African cultivated rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima were very similar to those of the Asian and African wild rice species O. rufipogon and O. barthii, respectively. This is consistent with the previous hypothesis that O. sativa and O. glaberrima are derived from specific wild rice species. Phylogenetic analysis based on the p-SINE1 insertion patterns showed that the strains of each of the five wild rice species formed a cluster. The strains of O. longistaminata appear to be distantly related to those of O. meridionalis. The strains of these two species appear to be distantly related to those of three other species, O. rufipogon, O. barthii and O. glumaepatula. The latter three species are closely related to one another with O. barthii and O. glumaepatula being most closely related. A phylogenetic tree including a hypothetical ancestor with all loci empty for p-SINE1 insertion showed that the strains of O. longistaminata are related most closely to the hypothetical ancestor. This indicates that O. longistaminata and O. meridionalis diverged early on, whereas the other species diverged relatively recently, and suggests that the Oryza genus with AA genome might have originated in Africa, rather than in Asia.     

Genetic aspects in hominid evolution

Genomic comparison between apes and humans have made important contributions to our understanding of human evolution. The modern period of karyological comparisons between humans and other primates began about forty years ago and has been marked by a series of technical revolutions. In the 1960s pioneering genetic and chromosomal comparisons of human and great apes suggested, as had Darwin a century before, that our closest relative were the African apes. Early immunological analyses placed human/apes divergence at about five million year ago. Acceptance of man’s late divergence from the African apes was delayed by the scarcity of paleontological evidence coupled with a fallacious Asiatic origin hypothesis of the hominoids. Chromosome banding techniques in the seventies and high resolution methods in the eighties allowed a detailed comparison of the chromosomes between closely related primates and reinforced the hypothesis of an African origin for humans. It was clearly shown that humans were more closely related to African apes than to the orang-utan. The last decade has seen a vigorous integration of molecular and cytogenetic. This powerful combination promises to be quite fruitful because chromosomes can be compared directly at the DNA level. Fluorescentin situ hybridisation (FISH), chromosome painting, is a colourful technique for establishing chromosomal homology between species. Results obtained by FISH over the last ten years have resolved the cytogenetic problem of the homology between humans, apes, hylobates and Old World monkeys and defined the chromosomal syntenies and major translocations involved in the genome evolution of higher primates.     

Implications phylogenetiques et biogeographiques des dernieres decouvertes de Muridae en Afghanistan,au Pakistan et en Ethiopie

Based on recent discoveries of Murid species in Pakistan and Afghanistan, two Asiatic autochtonous lineagesare proposed. Two forms from the African Pliocene seem to be related to these lineages. On this set of data, a new faunal province can be defined at the Mio-Pliocene boundary.     

Evidence for African origins of founders of the asiatic lion species survival plan

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) exists in the wild as a single relict population of approximately 250 individuals in the protected Gir Forest Sanctuary in western India. In 1981, a species survival plan (SSP) for the Asiatic lion was established by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums to manage the 200 + descendants of Asiatic lions in captivity in western zoological facilities. This captive population was derived from seven founders. In order to compare the genetic structure of the Gir Forest population with that of the captive SSP population, a genetic survey of 46 electrophoretic allozyme systems resolved from extracts of lion blood was undertaken by using 29 SSP Asiatic lions and 28 wild-caught or captive-bred lions maintained at the Sakkarbaug Zoo in India but originally derived from the Gir Forest. The Gir lion population was found to be genetically monomorphic at each of 46 allozyme loci. This was in contrast to several African lion (Panthera leo leo) populations, which show moderate levels of allozyme variation at the same loci. The SSP lion population was polymorphic at three allozyme loci (IDHI, TF, and PTI) for alleles that were previously found only in African lion populations. Pedigree analysis of the genetic transmission of these three biochemical loci demonstrated that two of the five primary founder animals of the SSP Asiatic lion population (a breeding pair originally imported from the Trivandrum Zoo in southern India) were descendants of the African subspecies. Three other founder animals were pure Asian. A retrospective SSP pedigree analysis of two morphologic characters (prominent abdominal fold and pairing of infraorbital foramen) that are partially diagnostic for persica vs leo was consistent with this conclusion as well. The implications for the management of small captive populations of threatened species and of the Asiatic lion SSP population are discussed.