The suspensory muscle of the duodenum

The suspensory muscle of the duodenum continues the muscular layers of the duodenum, which is consequently surrounded on its mesenteric border only by the muscularis mucosae. Between the muscle bundles of the suspensor there is much loose connective and adipose tissue. Microganglions of no more than 90 cells may be found between the muscle bundles of the suspensor. In their superior part, the muscle bundles have connective sheaths, which are continuous with the adventitia of the aorta and celiac trunk. It is most probable that the suspensor acts like a sphincter and is innervated contrarily to the duodenum.     

Functional morphology of the head of the anabantoid teleost fish Helostoma temmincki

Osteology, myology and motion analysis of the head of the anabantoid fish Helostoma temmincki, a specialized filter feeder, has revealed six functional units: neurocranium, suspensory apparatus, opercular apparatus, hyoid apparatus, branchial apparatus and pectoral girdle. Interactions between the functional units take place through four couplings involved in opening and protruding the jaws. The first coupling is activated in the beginning of the opening cycle by the levator operculi muscle through the opercular apparatus, interoperculomandibular ligament and mandible. The second is activated during feeding by contraction of the sternohyoideus through the hyoid apparatus, interopercular, interoperculomandibular ligament and mandible. The third coupling is active during feeding and “kissing” by contraction of epaxial muscles through mediation of the neurocranium to the jaw apparatus. The fourth coupling is the only one active during air intake and involves contraction of the levator arcus palatini which abducts and rotates the suspensory apparatus forwards, causing the mandible to drop. The retention of isolated ancestral characters during mosaic evolution are explained in terms of the maintenance of couplings which represent functional associations of seemingly remote structures. When natural selection acts on one component of a functional unit or coupling, it essentially acts on all associated elements simultaneously causing character complexes to evolve in common evolutionary trends. It is feasible that functional analysis can separate primary from secondary evolutionary trends.     

Variants of the suspensory muscle of the duodenum (Treitz's ligament) and the anatomical basis for its effective dissection in duodenal stasis

Depending on peculiarities of the duodenum fixation to the posterior abdominal wall, normal (normoduodenum), dolichoduodenum and duodenoptosis variants are distinguished. The m. suspensoris duodeni (ligament of Treits) in each variant has its peculiarities. At the normoduodenum and dolichoduodenum, the ligament of Treitz contains a considerable amount of striated muscle tissue. At the duodenoptosis--it consists of a loose fibrous connective tissue with single smooth (non-striated) muscle fibers. As demonstrate anatomical experiments for dissection of the normal ligament of Treitz and of its two variants, dissection of the ligament of Treitz at duodenoptosis eliminates essential anatomical prerequisites of duodenostasis.     

Time course of sympathetic denervation of the rat ovary after freezing its nerve supply

Brief freezing of the ovarian vascular pedicle in rats reduced ovarian noradrenaline concentration, measured with HPLC, by 67% (P less than 0.01). Freezing of the ovarian suspensory ligament caused a 22% reduction (P less than 0.01) and 33% reduction (P less than 0.05) in 2 experiments. The numbers of adrenergic nerve terminals detected by fluorescence microscopy after these procedures were similarly reduced (P less than 0.01). Freezing of both the pedicle and the ligament produced complete sympathetic denervation in about 50% of the ovaries. From Days 2 to 10 after operation no noradrenaline or nerve terminals were detected in 14 out of 27 ovaries. Nerve terminals were also eliminated from the oviduct. Reinnervation of the ovary began between Days 12 and 30. It is concluded that the adrenergic innervation of the ovary is predominantly through nerves that accompany the vascular supply to the ovary and the ovarian suspensory ligament. Freezing of these routes is a simple and relatively atraumatic means of denervating the ovary for experimental studies.     

The role of Treitz' ligament in regulating the evacuation of solid food from the duodenum

In the chronic experiments on dogs by means of modified method of multiple drainage of the intestinal fistulas, the effect of the Treitz ligament transection on dynamics of solid carbohydrate food evacuation from the duodenum was studied. It was established that in the norm, evacuation from the duodenum was submitted to exponential law and depended on absolute quantity of food evacuated from the stomach. After the Treitz ligament transection, the evacuation through intestine had a non-exponential character. The operation led to disturbance in co-ordination between evacuatory function of the stomach and that of duodenum, and also had the depressive effect on intestinal emptying. The conclusion is made of the functional role of the Treitz ligament as active regulator of solid food evacuation from the duodenum.     

Modified penis lengthening surgery: review of 52 cases

A modified surgical method for penis lengthening was, for the first time, set up in this laboratory. The procedure involves covering the dissected corpus cavernosum with either a scrotal flap or a skin graft after releasing the superficial ligament and even some deep suspensory ligament. The advantage of the scrotal flap is emphasized to cover the wound, and a V-Y suture was made to avoid the traction. The results, both in appearance and increased length, were satisfactory in 52 cases. Among the 52 patients, 39 suffered from congenital short penis and 13 from traumatic injuries. The significance and the blood supply of the penis are discussed.     

Comparative and functional studies on the suspensory apparatus of the lens (Mammalia)

Summary The suspensory apparatus of the lens has been studied in two species of placental mammals (dog and horse) and in two species of marsupials (phalanger and wallaby). Particular attention has been paid to the suspensory apparatus of the dog and the phalanger. It has been found that the suspensory apparatus of the lens shows great morphological variability, although some features generally are more common in one species than in the others. For instance, in the dog there is a tendency to form fibrous bundles, an uneven distribution of fibres around the lens, and a fan-like arrangement of these fibres at their attachment to the lens. In the phalanger the fibres are evenly distributed around most of the circumference of the lens and the bundles, if formed, are slender. An area devoid of fibres, described as a diastema,is also present.The morphology of ciliary folds, and of the fibrous bundles and the various types of interconnections between them, have been described and illustrated, and the comparative morphology of the suspensory apparatus of the lens discussed. The reduction of the accommodative mechanism from that situated on both horizontal and vertical planes to that on a horizontal plane only has been discussed. The latter type is found in mammals. The mechanics of the suspensory apparatus of the lens has also been considered and attention given to the rotation of the ciliary folds and the twisting of the fibrous bundles, as observed in the dry specimens. A possible relationship of this finding to the adaptation of the lens has also been discussed. The suggestion has been put forward that the suspensory apparatus of the lens is not only suspensory but also regulatory in function, the regulation depending on its ability to disperse stresses between the ciliary muscle and the lens. The formation of bundles, the existence of interconnecting fibres and interconnecting nets, and the spreading of the fibres of a bundle at its attachment to the lens, are the main factors contributing to the regulation of stresses.The morphology of the suspensory apparatus of the dog and the phalanger was compared with that of man.     

Microfibrils, elastic anchoring components of the extracellular matrix, are associated with fibronectin in the zonule of Zinn and aorta

Microfibrils are striated tubules that play a role in the formation of elastin fibers by providing a scaffold upon which newly synthesized elastin is deposited. Ultrastructural and staining studies also demonstrate microfibrils that terminate where elastin is sparse or absent in basal laminae, plasma membranes, and the collagenous matrix. The most striking accumulation of microfibrils is found in the zonule of Zinn, the transparent and elastic suspensory ligament of the lens, which contains no elastin. Application of immunocytochemical staining with a peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) procedure demonstrates that fibronectin is associated with the microfibrils of the zonule and aorta. Aggregates of microfibrils are identical to oxytalan ('acid enduring') fibers that have been described in peridontal membranes and other sites subject to mechanical stress and they can be found in sites as disparate as the rabbit zonule, rat hepatic stroma and human cardiac papillary muscle, indicating that microfibrils are a widely distributed connective tissue element with a function that extends beyond elastogenesis; their association with fibronectin and localization suggests that they serve as an elastic anchoring component of the extracellular matrix.     

The overexpression of the insl3 in female mice causes descent of the ovaries

Testicular descent in mice is dependent upon proper outgrowth of the gubernaculum primordia under the influence of the insulin-like 3 gene product (Insl3). Deletion of this gene prevents gubernaculum growth and causes bilateral cryptorchidism. In vitro experiments have led to the suggestion that Insl3 and androgens together induce outgrowth of the gubernacular primordia. The experiments reported here were designed specifically to determine whether in vivo the Insl3-mediated gubernaculum development is independent of androgens. To that effect transgenic male and female mice were generated that overexpressed Insl3 in the pancreas during fetal and postnatal life. Expression of the transgenic allele in the Insl3-deficient mice rescued the cryptorchidism in male mutant, indicating that the islet beta-cells efficiently processed the Insl3 gene product to the functional hormone. All transgenic females displayed bilateral inguinal hernia. The processus vaginalis developed containing intestinal loops. The Müllerian derivatives gave rise to oviduct, uterus, and upper vagina, and Wolffian duct derivatives were missing, indicating the absence of the androgen- and anti-Müllerian hormone-mediated activities in transgenic females. The ovaries descended into a position over the bladder and attached to the abdominal wall via the well developed cranial suspensory ligament and the gubernaculum. Administration of dihydrotestosterone during prenatal development suppressed formation of the cranial suspensory ligament and thereby allowed the descent of the ovaries into the processus vaginalis. These results suggest that Insl3-mediated activity induces gubernaculum development and precludes a role of androgen in this process. Furthermore, the transgenic females exhibit reduced fertility, which is due to fetal mortality during midgestation.     

Course and branches of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, inferior thyroid artery and inferior laryngeal artery

Length, width, and thickness of the recurrent laryngeal nerve and its extra-laryngeal twigs were estimated. Included is the course of the nerve to the suspensory ligament of the thyroid gland, to the inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage and to trachea and esophagus. The origin of the inferior thyroid artery, its width and course to the twigs of the recurrent laryngeal nerve were studied. The origin zone of the inferior laryngeal artery is also described. The different terms and opinions about the twigs of the truncus thyreocervicalis and the thyroid axis are discussed.     

Gross anatomy of the liver, biliary tree, and pancreas in the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)

The gross anatomy of the liver, extrapetatic biliary tree, sphincter of Oddi, and pancreas in the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus), a widely used animal model for investigations into biliary physiology, pathophysiology, and pathology, was studied in 10 animals. The liver consists of 4 lobes, the left lateral, median, right lateral, and caudate. The gallbladder lies on the ventral surface of the right lobule of the median lobe. The cystic and hepatic ducts unite to form the common bile duct which enters the duodenum approximately 5 mm distal to the pylorus. The lower end of the common duct dilates forming an ampulla which is surrounded proximally by a band of circular muscle fibres which constitute the choledochal sphincter. The pancreatic duct opens separately into the duodenum approximately 80 mm from the pylorus. Earlier physiologic studies have demonstrated that the choledochal sphincter has intrinsic motility distinct from the duodenum.     

Effects of pregnancy on the extrinsic innervation of the guinea pig uterus. A histochemical, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study

Summary The extrinsic innervation of the guinea pig uterus was studied by immunohistochemical, ultrastructural and enzyme histochemical methods.The extrinsic innervation was organized in two major ways. One consisted of nerve trunks and non-varicose nerve fibres running in the suspensory ligament, and the other of a plexus of varicose nerve fibres surrounding vessels, and non-vessel-related non-varicose nerve fibres in the mesouterus. The use of different neuronal and Schwann cell markers showed that the extrinsic innervation was predominantly adrenergic and contained only few peptidergic nerves. Acetylcholinesterase-positive (cholinergic) nerves were only found around the uterine artery.In late pregnancy, the extrinsic nerves of the mesouterus adjacent to foetus-containing uterine horns underwent pronounced degenerative changes comprising both Schwann cell and axonal structures. In comparison, no changes were found in extrinsic nerves of mesouteri adjacent to non-foetus-bearing uterine horns or in extrinsic nerves in the suspensory ligaments. Further, chemical sympathectomy produced axonal degeneration but no changes in the Schwann cells.In conclusion, the pregnancy-induced nerve degeneration is of a very special type different from that following chemical sympathectomy and represents a local phenomenon related to the conceptus. Hypothetically, this could be of importance for counteracting disturbances in placental blood flow.     

Buried penis release in adults with suction lipectomy and abdominoplasty

The buried penis in adults who had substantial weight gain was treated with a combination of suction lipectomy of the abdomen and pubic area and the release of the suspensory ligament of the penis and with abdominoplasty with suture anchoring of the pubic and penile skin base dermis to the rectus fascia superiorly. This procedure was performed in 11 patients over the past 10 years with satisfactory results. One patient required additional excess skin excision from the side of the pubic and scrotal area to improve the results.     

Aging and calcitriol regulation of IP3 production in rat skeletal muscle and intestine.

We previously reported that calcitriol [1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3] in rat skeletal muscle and duodenum stimulates the hydrolysis of polyphosphoinositides by phospholipase C (PLC), generating the second messengers inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), and that this mechanism is altered in old animals. As previously reported in muscle, we show in the present study that GTPgammaS (100 microM, 15 s), the non-hydrolyzable analogue of GTP, increased IP3 release from young rats duodenum to the same extent as 1 nM calcitriol (+ 100%), while GDPbetaS (100 microM) suppressed hormone-dependent IP3 production. Similarly to calcitriol, GTPgammaS response was diminished in old rats. Contrary to muscle, pretreatment with Bordetella pertussis toxin did not modify calcitriol-dependent IP3 in duodenum. The antibody, anti-G alpha q/11 (1:200) and anti-G alpha i (1:200) blocked calcitriol-dependent IP3 release in muscle from young rats, indicating that the hormone activates an isoform of PLC coupled to the alpha subunit of Gq/11 and possibly the betagamma subunits of Gi. The aged muscle was insensitive to anti G alpha i. In rat duodenum the hormone effects were suppressed by anti-Gq/11 both in young and aged animals. In 24-month-old rats, Gq/11 and Gi protein levels were greatly reduced both in muscle and duodenum, suggesting that a deficiency in G protein expression with aging may have important consequences for correct receptor/effector coupling and could explain age-related declines in the function of second messenger systems linked to G-proteins.     

Role of the prehensile tail during ateline locomotion: experimental and osteological evidence

The dynamic role of the prehensile tail of atelines during locomotion is poorly understood. While some have viewed the tail of Ateles simply as a safety mechanism, others have suggested that the prehensile tail plays an active role by adjusting pendulum length or controlling lateral sway during bimanual suspensory locomotion. This study examines the bony and muscular anatomy of the prehensile tail as well as the kinematics of tail use during tail-assisted brachiation in two primates, Ateles and Lagothrix. These two platyrrhines differ in anatomy and in the frequency and kinematics of suspensory locomotion. Lagothrix is stockier, has shorter forelimbs, and spends more time traveling quadrupedally and less time using bimanual suspensory locomotion than does Ateles. In addition, previous studies showed that Ateles exhibits greater hyperextension of the tail, uses its tail to grip only on alternate handholds, and has a larger abductor caudae medialis muscle compared to Lagothrix. In order to investigate the relationship between anatomy and behavior concerning the prehensile tail, osteological data and kinematic data were collected for Ateles fusciceps and Lagothrix lagothricha. The results demonstrate that Ateles has more numerous and smaller caudal elements, particularly in the proximal tail region. In addition, transverse processes are relatively wider, and sacro-caudal articulation is more acute in Ateles compared to Lagothrix. These differences reflect the larger abductor muscle mass and greater hyperextension in Ateles. In addition, Ateles shows fewer side-to-side movements during tail-assisted brachiation than does Lagothrix. These data support the notion that the prehensile tail represents a critical dynamic element in the tail-assisted brachiation of Ateles, and may be useful in developing inferences concerning behavior in fossil primates.     

Principal features of the nerve supply to the ovary, oviduct and tubal third of the uterus in the golden hamster

The autonomic outflow and sensory structures in the ovary and accessory reproductive organs of the hamster are described by means of specific fluorescence and enzyme histochemical techniques for the demonstration of catecholamine and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), respectively. Sympathetic nerves accompany branches of the major blood vessels in the mesentery of the ovary, oviduct and tubal uterine horn and invest the vascular bed in each of these organs. Vasomotor fibers predominate in the ovary and oviduct, though occasional adrenergic axons supply thecal and interstitial tissues in the ovary and the longitudinal smooth muscle of the oviduct. Fluorescent myomotor axons run in the suspensory ligament and outer myometrial layer of the uterus, but most of the numerous sympathetic and AChE-fibers in the tubal third of the horn supply the intramural and submucosal vascular plexuses. A limited electron microscopic study of the central spiral (preplacental) arteries of the endometrium indicates that the surrounding terminal AChE-fibers are identical to the fluorescent and granular vesicle-bearing adrenergic axons which form neuromuscular junctions with these vessels. Based on the discovery of specialized sensory endings in the walls of the large collecting veins which drain the hamster uterus, a mechanism is proposed to account for the regulation of blood flow through maternal placental vessels which are devoid of an arteriolar neuromuscular apparatus.     

Morphology of the female reproductive organs of the African lion (Panthera leo)

The topography and splanchnology of the reproductive organs of the African lioness were studied and described in situ and after removal. The kidneys were located far caudally in relation to the thirteenth ribs. The suspensory ligament was very well developed, originated in a fan‐like manner from the dorsolateral abdominal wall lateral to the kidney and extended up to a few centimetres cranial to the kidney. The proper ligament of the ovary as well as the round ligament was well developed. The round ligament inserted on the medial femoral fascia. The left ovary was bigger than the right. The ovarian bursa had a short mesosalpinx that did not cover any part of the ovary and the fimbriae extended along the entire length. The urethral tuberculum as well as the urethral crest were well developed. The left uterine horn was longer than the right. The uterine tube was found to open directly into the tip of the uterine horn and not onto a papilla. The reproductive organs of the lioness resembled those of the domestic cat and dog but with some major differences.     

Spinal and supraspinal effects of activity in ligament afferents.

In this paper available knowledge on effects from joint and ligament afferents on spinal neurones and pathways are briefly reviewed, and possible functional implications discussed. Ligament afferents may contribute to joint stability, muscle coordination and proprioception through direct polysynaptic reflex effects onto ascending pathways and skeletomotoneurones, and/or indirectly via reflex actions on the gamma-muscle spindle system. Theoretical and experimental evidence indicate that ligament afferents, together with afferents from other joint structures, muscles and the skin, provide the CNS with information on movements and posture through ensemble coding mechanisms, rather than via modality specific private pathways. The existence and functional relevance of ligamentomuscular protective reflexes, that are triggered when the ligament is threatened by potentially harmful loads, has been seriously questioned. It seems more likely that peripheral sensory inputs from ligament afferents participate in a continuous control of the muscle activity through feedforward, or preprogramming, mechanisms. In line with these ideas it has been suggested that ligament mechanoreceptors have an important role in muscle coordination and in the reflex regulation of the functional joint stability, by contributing to the preprogramming of the muscle stiffness through reflex modulation of the gamma-muscle spindle system.     

Ovulation after sympathetic denervation of the rat ovary produced by freezing its nerve supply

The ovaries of cyclic female rats were unilaterally or bilaterally denervated or sham-operated. Denervation was achieved by freezing the ovarian vascular pedicle and suspensory ligament about 1 cm from the ovary; this technique renders the ovary devoid of innervation for up to 10 days. Denervated ovaries from 6 unilaterally and 7 bilaterally operated animals exhibited normal ovulation rates (5.8 +/- 1.0 and 5.2 +/- 1.2 respectively, mean +/- s.e.m.) compared with intact (5.6 +/- 0.4) and sham-operated controls (4.4 +/- 0.6 unilaterally sham-operated; 4.1 +/- 0.8 bilaterally sham-operated). It is concluded that the mechanism of follicular rupture is unaffected by the absence of ovarian sympathetic innervation.     

Mastication and the postorbital ligament: dynamic strain in soft tissues

Although the FEED database focuses on muscle activity patterns, it is equally suitable for other physiological recording and especially for synthesizing different types of information. The present contribution addresses the interaction between muscle activity and ligamentary stretch during mastication. The postorbital ligament is the thickened edge of a septum dividing the orbital contents from the temporal fossa and is continuous with the temporal fascia. As a tensile element, this fascial complex could support the zygomatic arch against the pull of the masseter muscle. An ossified postorbital bar has evolved repeatedly in mammals, enabling resistance to compression and shear in addition to tension. Although such ossification clearly reinforces the skull against muscle pull, the most accepted explanation is that it helps isolate the orbital contents from contractions of the temporalis muscle. However, it has never been demonstrated that the contraction of jaw muscles deforms the unossified ligament. We examined linear deformation of the postorbital ligament in minipigs, Sus scrofa, along with electromyography of the jaw muscles and an assessment of changes in pressure and shape in the temporalis. During chewing, the ligament elongated (average 0.9%, maximum 2.8%) in synchrony with the contraction of the elevator muscles of the jaw. Although the temporalis bulged outward and created substantial pressure against the braincase, the superficial fibers usually retracted caudally, away from the postorbital ligament. In anesthetized animals, stimulating either the temporalis or the masseter muscle in isolation usually elongated the ligament (average 0.4-0.7%). These results confirm that contraction of the masticatory muscles can potentially distort the orbital contents and further suggest that the postorbital ligament does function as a tension member resisting the pull of the masseter on the zygomatic arch.