Bromoperoxidase activity in microplantlet suspension cultures of the macrophytic red alga Ochtodes secundiramea.

Bromoperoxidase is an enzyme found in marine macroalgae that catalyzes the bromination of organic substrates. Photosynthetic microplantlet suspension cultures derived from the macrophytic red alga Ochtodes secundiramea were shown to possess bromoperoxidase. The optimum pH for O. secundiramea bromoperoxidase activity in cell-free extracts was 6.0, and the half-saturation constant for bromination of the exogeneous substrate monochlorodimedone (MCD) was 18 microM. O. secundiramea microplantlets were cultivated in a bubble-column photobioreactor at an incident light intensity of 38 microE x m(-2) x s(-1) (71% of light-saturated photosynthesis, 10:14 light:dark photoperiod), and the kinetics of cell growth and bromoperoxidase production were followed. At these conditions, the specific growth rate was 0.052 x day(-1). The lowest specific bromoperoxidase activity of 0.3 micromol MCD x g(-1) cell x min(-1) occurred during the midexponential phase of growth, and then increased steeply to 1.9 micromol MCD x g(-1) cell x min(-1) during the late stationary phase, suggesting that bromoperoxidase production was part of secondary metabolism. The estimated bromoperoxidase content in the cell mass at late stationary phase was 67 microg x g(-1) dry cell mass, demonstrating that bioreactor production of marine bromoperoxidase is feasible.     

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PROTOPLASTS OF MACROCYSTIS PYRIFERA (PHAEOPHYTA)1

Photosynthetic rates measured in protoplasts isolated from the broivn alga Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag. were compared to those for intact tissue. Both ¹⁴C incorporation and O₂ evolution gave similar rates of light-saturated protoplast photosynthesis (approximately 0.4 mmol-g chl a^?1· min^?1). Light saturated photosynthetic rates (P_max) and light harvesting efficiencies (α) of protoplasts were approximately 40% those of intact tissue. In contrast, protoplasts had a greater substrate affinity for photosynthetic HCO₃ uptake (lower K_0.5) than intact tissue (0.87 and 4.1 mMolar, respectively), presumably because of a reduction in the thickness of the unstirred boundary layer in the absence of the cell wall. Overall, the data suggest that protoplasts isolated from Macrocystis pyrifera are of valur in the study of photosynthesis. However, experiments with intact tissue are necessary as controls to aid interpretation of protoplast data.     

龙须菜中溴过氧化物酶的分离纯化及酶学性质分析

对中国北方海域江蓠属养殖龙须菜(Gracilaria lemaneiformis)进行了溴过氧化物酶分离纯化及性质的研究。粗提液中酶催化检测反应不稳定, 活力单位较低或无; 经DEAE cellulose 52离子交换层析, 去除了结构多糖及藻胆蛋白, 酶催化反应稳定, 得到比活力为2.8的电泳纯溴过氧化物酶。对纯化溴过氧化物酶性质研究表明: 该溴过氧化物酶为单体酶, 分子量约66 kD, 溴化单氯双甲酮时的最适pH值为6.0, 在40°C以下和pH 3.0~9.0之间有很好的稳定性。钒酸盐可提高该溴过氧化物酶的催化活性, 而Fe2+、Fe3+、Cu2+、Zn2+和EDTA等化合物对其有较显著的抑制作用。反应动力学实验表明, 该酶对Br-、H2O2的Km分别为53.5 mmol/L和38 mmol/L。     

龙须菜中溴过氧化物酶的分离纯化及酶学性质分析

对中国北方海域江蓠属养殖龙须菜(Gracilaria lemaneiformis)进行了溴过氧化物酶分离纯化及性质的研究。粗提液中酶催化检测反应不稳定, 活力单位较低或无; 经DEAE cellulose 52离子交换层析, 去除了结构多糖及藻胆蛋白, 酶催化反应稳定, 得到比活力为2.8的电泳纯溴过氧化物酶。对纯化溴过氧化物酶性质研究表明: 该溴过氧化物酶为单体酶, 分子量约66 kD, 溴化单氯双甲酮时的最适pH值为6.0, 在40°C以下和pH 3.0~9.0之间有很好的稳定性。钒酸盐可提高该溴过氧化物酶的催化活性, 而Fe2+、Fe3+、Cu2+、Zn2+和EDTA等化合物对其有较显著的抑制作用。反应动力学实验表明, 该酶对Br-、H2O2的Km分别为53.5 mmol/L和38 mmol/L。     

Analysis of viability and cell types of macroalgal protoplasts using flow cytometry

The ability to rapidly distinguish viable sub-populations of cells within populations of macroalgal protoplast isolations was demonstrated using flow cytometry. Viable protoplasts from Ulva sp. and Porphyra perforata J. Ag. were distinguished from non-viable protoplasts based on differential fluorescein accumulation. The identities of cortical and epidermal protoplasts from Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Ag. were inferred based on light-scattering and chlorophyll a autofluorescence. Three cell types could be distinguished among protoplasts released from thalli of P. perforata based on chlorophyll a and phycoerythrin autofluorescence. Mixed protoplast populations of Ulva sp. and P. perforata were also discernable based on relative chlorophyll a and phycoerythrin autofluorescence. The ability to screen heterogenous protoplast populations rapidly, combined with the cell sorting capabilities of many flow cytometers, should prove valuable for seaweed biotechnology.     

Mechanism of dioxygen formation catalyzed by vanadium bromoperoxidase. Steady state kinetic analysis and comparison to the mechanism of bromination

The steady state kinetic mechanism of the bromide-assisted disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide, forming dioxygen, catalyzed by vanadium bromoperoxidase has been investigated and compared to the mechanism of monochlorodimedone (MCD) bromination under conditions of 0.0125-6 mM H2O2, 1-500 mM Br-, and pH 4.55-6.52. Under these conditions, 50 microM MCD was sufficient to inhibit at least 90% of the dioxygen formation during MCD bromination. The rate data is consistent with a substrate-inhibited Bi Bi Ping Pong mechanism, in which the substrate bromide, is also an inhibitor at pH 4.55 and 5.25, but not at pH 5.91 and 6.52. The kinetic parameter KmBr, KmH2O2, KisBr, and KiiBr determined for the reactions of bromide-assisted disproportionation fo hydrogen peroxide and MCD bromination are similar, indicating that the mechanisms of both reactions occur via the formation of a common intermediate, the formation of which is rate-limiting. Fluoride is a competitive inhibitor with respect to hydrogen peroxide in both reactions at pH 6.5. At high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, the bromide-assisted disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide occurs during the bromination of MCD. The sum of the rates of MCD bromination and dioxygen formation during MCD bromination is equal to the rate of dioxygen formation in the absence of MCD. The apportionment of the reaction through the MCD bromination and dioxygen formation pathways depends on pH, with much lower hydrogen peroxide concentrations causing significant dioxygen formation at higher pH.     

The novel non-heme vanadium bromoperoxidase from marine algae: Phosphate inactivation

Summary Vanadium bromoperoxidase is a naturally occurring vanadium-containing enzyme isolated from marine algae. V-BrPO catalyzes the oxidation of halides by hydrogen peroxide which can result in the halogenation of organic substrates. Bromoperoxidase activity is measured by the halogenation of monochlorodimedone (2-chloro-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dimedone, MCD). In the absence of an organic substrate, V-BrPO catalyzes the halide-assisted disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide yielding dioxygen. The dioxygen formed is in the singlet excited state (¹O₂). V-BrPO is quite stable to thermal denaturation and denaturation by certain organic solvents which makes V-BrPO an excellent candidate for industrial applications. The stability of V-BrPO in the presence of strong oxidants and in the presence of phosphate is reported. Incubation of V-BrPO in phosphate buffer (1–100 mM at pH 6; 2–10 mM at pH 5) inactivates the enzyme. The inactivity can be fully restored by the addition of vanadate if excess phosphate is removed. The inactivation of V-BrPO by phosphate can be prevented by the presence of H₂O₂ (4–40 mM). We are currently investigating the mechanism of V-BrPO inactivation by phosphate. V-BrPO was not inactivated by HOCl (1 mM) nor H₂O₂. In addition V-BrPO was not inactivated under turnover conditions of 1 mM H₂O₂ with 0.1–1 M Cl^– at pH 5 nor 2 mM H₂O₂ with 0.1 M Br^–.     

Influence of pH and sucrose concentration on nonenzymatic and enzymatic isolation of protoplasts from mature pollen of Tulbaghia violacea

Studies on protoplast isolation were carried out with mature pollen grains of Tulbaghia violacea Harv. (Liliaceae). Pollen grains drifted from surface sterilized crushed anthers were incubated either in a nonenzymatic solution composed of Nitsch medium and sucrose, or in the same solution supplemented with 1% cellulase Onozuka R-10 and 1% Macerozyme R-10. The process of protoplast release was studied as a function of pH and sucrose concentration of nonenzymatic and enzymatic solutions. For nonenzymatic isolation, the tested range of pH and sucrose concentration was from 3.3 to 13.1 and from 0.015 to 1.12 M (final solution osmolality from 200 to 1,300 mOs kg^-1 H₂O), respectively. In the former case, the release of protoplasts occurred only at nonphysiological pH (12.2 to 13.1) and could be observed after several seconds to 120 min, depending on pH and sucrose concentration of medium. Under enzymatic incubation, viable protoplasts were released more rapidly (3 to 35 min) and in more physiological conditions, the optimum being pH 5.8 and final medium osmolality 652 mOs kg^-1 H₂O. Speed, manner of protoplast release, number and quality of protoplasts were dependent on interactions of pH and sucrose concentration.     

Identification of a Compound in Chamaecyparis taiwanensis Inhibiting the Ice-nucleating Activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens KUIN-1

Inactivation of the ice-nucleating activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens KUIN-1 by compounds in the leaves from coniferous trees were investigated, and the inactivated material was identified. Intact cells of the strain KUIN-1 and the acetone or methanol extracts of leaves of various coniferous trees were allowed to react for 30 min at 18°C. Antinucleation compounds were obtained from Chamaecyparis taiwanensis. When the acetone extract from the leaves of coniferous trees was added to the cell suspension (about 10⁶ cells/ml) in 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), the ice nucleating temperature, T₅₀, was significantly decreased (T₅₀<-5°C). This inhibitor was isolated by using TLC, then identified as hinokitiol based on UV-VIS, IR, and mass spectral data. When intact cells of the strain KUIN-1 were incubated with hinokitiol, limonene, and α-pinene of the principal constituent of the leaves of coniferous trees in 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), the ice-nucleating activity decreased, but not in α-terpinene. Furthermore, the ice-nucleating activities from other ice-nucleating bacteria also decreased in the presence of hinokitiol. This inhibition was proportional to the concentration of hinokitinol. The pH and thermal stabilities of the ice-nucleating activity of the cells were changed by the addition of hinokitiol (10 mM).     

ISOLATION AND REGENERATION OF HAPLOID PROTOPLASTS FROM BANGIA ATROPURPUREA (RHODOPHYTA) WITH MARINE BACTERIAL ENZYMES1

Three kinds of enzymes, agarase, β-1,4-mannanase, and β-1,3-xylanase, required for isolation of protoplasts from the red alga Bangia atropurpurea (Roth) C. Ag. were prepared from bacterial culture fluids of Vibrio sp. PO-303, Vibrio sp. MA-138, and Alcaligenes sp. XY-234, respectively, isolated from the sea environment. The optimal pH of all enzymes was around 7.5. Suitable conditions for protoplast isolation from B. atropurpurea were examined. The pretreatment of the fronds with pa-pain solution (20 mM Mes buffer, pH 7.5, containing 2% papain and 0.5 M mannitol) contributed to successful protoplast isolation. When razor-cut fragments of the fronds (about 200 mg in fresh weight) immersed in 20 mM Mes buffer, 7.5, containing 0.5 M mannitol and one unit each of agarase, β-1,4-mannanase, and β-1,3-xylanase were incubated at 22°C for 90 min with gentle agitation, 5.7 × 10⁶ protoplasts were released from them. Many protoplasts regenerated into fronds of regular or irregular shape.     

Optimization of protoplast formation,regeneration, and viability in Microsporum gypseum

Factors affecting high yields, regeneration frequencies, and viability of protoplasts from clonal cultures of Microsporum gypseum were investigated. Maximum yields of protoplasts were obtained after 6 hrs digestion of 2–4 days old mycelium with Novozyme 234 using CaCl₂ (0.4 M) as an osmotic stabilizer and glycine + HCl (pH 4.5) as the buffer system. Mercaptoethanol + dithiothreitol (0.01 M) proved to be the best pretreatment of mycelium prior to digestion with enzyme. A regeneration frequency of 94.4% was obtained using the top agar method with complete medium (pH 6.5) containing 0.5% agar and 0.4 M CaCl₂ as an osmoticum. Colonies from regenerated protoplasts on medium containing CaCl₂ were pigmented and completely powdery with high sporulation. Protoplast viability was studied in osmotic stabilizer supplemented with glucose or glutamine. After 24 hrs, glucose (2%) and glutamine (2%) enhanced protoplast viability by 22% and 23%, respectively. Protein synthesis, as measured by ³H-lysine uptake, matched the viability profile determined by fluorescence microscopy.     

Haloperoxidase activities in Arctic macroalgae

Haloperoxidase activities were assayed in 21 species of Arctic green, red and brown macroalgae collected in the Kongsfjord at Ny-Ålesund (Svalbard). The enzymes were specific for bromide and/or iodide, but not for chloride. Highest bromoperoxidase activities were found in the brown seaweads Laminaria saccharina and L. digitata, whereas highest iodoperoxidase activities were measured in the green species Acrosiphonia sonderi and Enteromorpha compressa. Optimum pH for bromination ranged between pH 4 and 7.     

Distribution of cortical microtubules in tobacco protoplasts. An immunofluorescence microscopic and ultrastructural study

Summary The arrangement of cortical microtubules in tobacco protoplasts is described using the following techniques: 1. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of thin sections of whole protoplasts, 2. TEM of negatively stained protoplast ghosts, and 3. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy of protoplast ghosts. Ghosts were prepared by attaching freshly isolated protoplasts to glass coverslips or formvar/carbon-coated grids with poly-L-lysine and then bursting them either osmotically or by detergent treatment in the presence of a microtubule stabilizing buffer. Osmotic bursting of protoplasts yielded large pieces of plasma membrane with attached microtubules. These preparations proved very useful for measuring the density and length of cortical microtubules. Detergent treatment dissolved the plasma membrane and altered the distribution of cortical microtubules.     

Effect of organic solvents on a chloroperoxidase biotransformation

The effect of organic solvents on the chlorination activity of chloroperoxidase (CPO) was identified for use in biotransformations with CPO. CPO was found to chlorinate monochlorodimedon (MCD) in the presence of organic solvents with log P values less than 0. The relative rates of chlorination with chloride ion in the presence of H₂O₂, buffer and 2.5–20% of either dimethyl sulfoxide, N,N-dimethyl formamide, methanol or acetonitrile, were in the range of 10–58% of that in buffer (pH 2.8) at the same reactant concentrations. The presence of such organic solvents was found to alter CPO catalysis by altering the protein conformation and the local environment at the active site. CPO did not display chlorination activity in the presence of organic solvents which had log P values greater than 0.     

Ocean acidification and kelp development: Reduced pH has no negative effects on meiospore germination and gametophyte development of Macrocystis pyrifera and Undaria pinnatifida

The absorption of anthropogenic CO₂ by the oceans is causing a reduction in the pH of the surface waters termed ocean acidification (OA). This could have substantial effects on marine coastal environments where fleshy (non‐calcareous) macroalgae are dominant primary producers and ecosystem engineers. Few OA studies have focused on the early life stages of large macroalgae such as kelps. This study evaluated the effects of seawater pH on the ontogenic development of meiospores of the native kelp Macrocystis pyrifera and the invasive kelp Undaria pinnatifida, in south‐eastern New Zealand. Meiospores of both kelps were released into four seawater pH treatments (pH_T 7.20, extreme OA predicted for 2300; pH_T 7.65, OA predicted for 2100; pH_T 8.01, ambient pH; and pH_T 8.40, pre‐industrial pH) and cultured for 15 d. Meiospore germination, germling growth rate, and gametophyte size and sex ratio were monitored and measured. Exposure to reduced pH_T (7.20 and 7.65) had positive effects on germling growth rate and gametophyte size in both M. pyrifera and U. pinnatifida, whereas, higher pH_T (8.01 and 8.40) reduced the gametophyte size in both kelps. Sex ratio of gametophytes of both kelps was biased toward females under all pH_T treatments, except for U. pinnatifida at pH_T 7.65. Germling growth rate under OA was significantly higher in M. pyrifera compared to U. pinnatifida but gametophyte development was equal for both kelps under all seawater pH_T treatments, indicating that the microscopic stages of the native M. pyrifera and the invasive U. pinnatifida will respond similarly to OA.     

Characterization of the oxidized states of bromoperoxidase

Bromoperoxidase Compound I has been formed in reactions between bromoperoxidase and organic peroxide substrates. The absorbance spectrum of bromoperoxidase Compound I closely resembles the Compound I spectra of other peroxidases. The pH dependence of the second order rate constant for the formation of Compound I with hydrogen peroxide demonstrates the presence of an ionizable group at the enzyme active site having a pKa of 5.3. Protonation of this acidic group inhibits the rate of Compound I formation. This pKa value is higher than that determined for other peroxidases but the overall pH rate profiles for Compound I formation are similar. The one-electron reduction of bromoperoxidase Compound I yields Compound II and a second reduction yields native enzyme. Bromoperoxidase Compound II readily forms Compound III in the presence of an excess of hydrogen peroxide. Compound III passes through an as yet uncharacterized intermediate (III) in its decay to native enzyme. Compound III is produced and accumulates in enzymatic bromination reactions to become the predominate steady state form of the enzyme. Since Compound III is inactive as catalyst for enzymatic bromination, its accumulation leads to an idling reaction pathway which displays an unusual kinetic pattern for the bromination of monochlorodimedone.     

Development of novel elongated fiber-structure in protoplast cultures of Betula platyphylia and Larix leptolepis

Summary Novel elongated fiber-structures were repeatedly found both in leaf protoplast culture of two clones of Betula platyphylla and in protoplast culture of embryogenic cells of Larix leptolepis. Suboptimum culture conditions for cell division appeared to lead to fiber formation when using multi-well plate culture with varying medium compositions The suboptimum conditions for cell divisions were brought about by (1) plant growth regulators: auxins and cytokinins; (2) pH: 3.5, 4.5, 5.8; (3) divalent cations: CaCl₂ and MgCl₂; and (4) sugars: sucrose and mannitol. Divalent cations had the most profound effect on fiber formation. Calcium ions were preferred by Betula and magnesium ions were preferred by Larix. Single fiberpurification and micro-staining methods using a micromanipulator were developed. The fibers fluoresced when stained with Calcofluor White and Aniline Blue, which suggested that they were composed of cell wall component(s), including callose (β-1,3-glucan). Electron microscopy showed that fiber bundles of Larix fibers had helical substructures.     

Selection methods in bacilli for recombinants and transformants of intra- and interspecific fused protoplasts

The intraspecific fusion frequencies obtained with the direct selection method on a semi-synthetic regeneration medium between strains of B. subtilis and B. licheniformis were distribution from 9.9×10^-2 to 4.5×10^-3, which was one or two orders higher than those of interspecific recombinations between B. subtilis and B. licheniformis.The regeneration media were also useful for selecting interspecific transformants from plasmid carrier to non-carrier. This selection could be used as a primary selection method for inter-and intraspecific recombinants obtained by protoplast fusion.Abbreviations NTG N-methyl-N-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine - Cm chloramphenicol - SMM 0.5 M sucrose-0.02 M MgCl₂-0.02 M maleate buffer, pH 6.5     

Purification and some characteristics of a non-haem bromoperoxidase from Streptomyces aureofaciens

A bromoperoxidase was isolated from the chlortetracycline-producing actinomycete, Streptomyces aureofaciens. This enzyme catalysed bromination and iodination, but surprisingly did not catalyse chlorination. The enzyme had an acidic pH optimum (pH 4.3) and the isoelectric point was 3.5. The Km for bromide was 20 mM and the Km for H2O2 was as high as 8 mM. The bromoperoxidase did not contain haem, since it was not inhibited by azide or cyanide. Excess bromide or chloride had no effect on its brominating activity; however, fluoride strongly inhibited the bromoperoxidase (Ki = 20 microM). On the basis of gel electrophoresis in the absence and presence of sodium dodecyl sulphate, the molecular mass of the enzyme was 65 kDa and it consisted of two subunits of 32 kDa each. The bromoperoxidase was remarkably thermostable.