Soil Microbial Responses to Temporal Variations of Moisture and Temperature in a Chihuahuan Desert Grassland

Global climate change models indicate that storm magnitudes will increase in many areas throughout southwest North America, which could result in up to a 25% increase in seasonal precipitation in the Big Bend region of the Chihuahuan Desert over the next 50 years. Seasonal precipitation is a key limiting factor regulating primary productivity, soil microbial activity, and ecosystem dynamics in arid and semiarid regions. As decomposers, soil microbial communities mediate critical ecosystem processes that ultimately affect the success of all trophic levels, and the activity of these microbial communities is primarily regulated by moisture availability. This research is focused on elucidating soil microbial responses to seasonal and yearly changes in soil moisture, temperature, and selected soil nutrient and edaphic properties in a Sotol Grassland in the Chihuahuan Desert at Big Bend National Park. Soil samples were collected over a 3-year period in March and September (2004-2006) at 0-15 cm soil depth from 12 3 x 3 m community plots. Bacterial and fungal carbon usage (quantified using Biolog 96-well micro-plates) was related to soil moisture patterns (ranging between 3.0 and 14%). In addition to soil moisture, the seasonal and yearly variability of soil bacterial activity was most closely associated with levels of soil organic matter, extractable NH(4)-N, and soil pH. Variability in fungal activity was related to soil temperatures ranging between 13 and 26 degrees C. These findings indicate that changes in soil moisture, coupled with soil temperatures and resource availability, drive the functioning of soil-microbial dynamics in these desert grasslands. Temporal patterns in microbial activity may reflect the differences in the ability of bacteria and fungi to respond to seasonal patterns of moisture and temperature. Bacteria were more able to respond to moisture pulses regardless of temperature, while fungi only responded to moisture pulses during cooler seasons with the exception of substantial increased magnitudes in precipitation occurring during warmer months. Changes in the timing and magnitude of precipitation will alter the proportional contribution of bacteria and fungi to decomposition and nitrogen mineralization in this desert grassland.     

Soil microbial and nutrient responses to 7 years of seasonally altered precipitation in a Chihuahuan Desert grassland

Soil microbial communities in Chihuahuan Desert grasslands generally experience highly variable spatiotemporal rainfall patterns. Changes in precipitation regimes can affect belowground ecosystem processes such as decomposition and nutrient cycling by altering soil microbial community structure and function. The objective of this study was to determine if increased seasonal precipitation frequency and magnitude over a 7‐year period would generate a persistent shift in microbial community characteristics and soil nutrient availability. We supplemented natural rainfall with large events (one/winter and three/summer) to simulate increased precipitation based on climate model predictions for this region. We observed a 2‐year delay in microbial responses to supplemental precipitation treatments. In years 3–5, higher microbial biomass, arbuscular mycorrhizae abundance, and soil enzyme C and P acquisition activities were observed in the supplemental water plots even during extended drought periods. In years 5–7, available soil P was consistently lower in the watered plots compared to control plots. Shifts in soil P corresponded to higher fungal abundances, microbial C utilization activity, and soil pH. This study demonstrated that 25% shifts in seasonal rainfall can significantly influence soil microbial and nutrient properties, which in turn may have long‐term effects on nutrient cycling and plant P uptake in this desert grassland.     

Soil Microbial Community Response to Drought and Precipitation Variability in the Chihuahuan Desert

Increases in the magnitude and variability of precipitation events have been predicted for the Chihuahuan Desert region of West Texas. As patterns of moisture inputs and amounts change, soil microbial communities will respond to these alterations in soil moisture windows. In this study, we examined the soil microbial community structure within three vegetation zones along the Pine Canyon Watershed, an elevation and vegetation gradient in Big Bend National Park, Chihuahuan Desert. Soil samples at each site were obtained in mid-winter (January) and in mid-summer (August) for 2 years to capture a component of the variability in soil temperature and moisture that can occur seasonally and between years along this watershed. Precipitation patterns and amounts differed substantially between years with a drought characterizing most of the second year. Soils were collected during the drought period and following a large rainfall event and compared to soil samples collected during a relatively average season. Structural changes within microbial community in response to site, season, and precipitation patterns were evaluated using fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analyses. Fungal FAME amounts differed significantly across seasons and sites and greatly outweighed the quantity of bacterial and actinomycete FAME levels for all sites and seasons. The highest fungal FAME levels were obtained in the low desert scrub site and not from the high elevation oak–pine forests. Total bacterial and actinomycete FAME levels did not differ significantly across season and year within any of the three locations along the watershed. Total bacterial and actinomycete FAME levels in the low elevation desert-shrub and grassland sites were slightly higher in the winter than in the summer. Microbial community structure at the high elevation oak–pine forest site was strongly correlated with levels of NH₄ ⁺–N, % soil moisture, and amounts of soil organic matter irrespective of season. Microbial community structure at the low elevation desert scrub and sotol grasslands sites was most strongly related to soil pH with bacterial and actinobacterial FAME levels accounting for site differences along the gradient. DGGE band counts of amplified soil bacterial DNA were found to differ significantly across sites and season with the highest band counts found in the mid-elevation grassland site. The least number of bands was observed in the high elevation oak–pine forest following the large summer-rain event that occurred after a prolonged drought. Microbial responses to changes in precipitation frequency and amount due to climate change will differ among vegetation zones along this Chihuahuan Desert watershed gradient. Soil bacterial communities at the mid-elevation grasslands site are the most vulnerable to changes in precipitation frequency and timing, while fungal community structure is most vulnerable in the low desert scrub site. The differential susceptibility of the microbial communities to changes in precipitation amounts along the elevation gradient reflects the interactive effects of the soil moisture window duration following a precipitation event and differences in soil heat loads. Amounts and types of carbon inputs may not be as important in regulating microbial structure among vegetation zones within in an arid environment as is the seasonal pattern of soil moisture and the soil heat load profile that characterizes the location.     

Effects of altered temperature and precipitation on desert protozoa associated with biological soil crusts

Biological soil crusts are diverse assemblages of bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, and mosses that cover much of arid land soils. The objective of this study was to quantify protozoa associated with biological soil crusts and test the response of protozoa to increased temperature and precipitation as is predicted by some global climate models. Protozoa were more abundant when associated with cyanobacteria/lichen crusts than with cyanobacteria crusts alone. Amoebae, flagellates, and ciliates originating from the Colorado Plateau desert (cool desert, primarily winter precipitation) declined 50-, 10-, and 100-fold, respectively, when moved in field mesocosms to the Chihuahuan Desert (hot desert, primarily summer rain). However, this was not observed in protozoa collected from the Chihuahuan Desert and moved to the Sonoran desert (hot desert, also summer rain, but warmer than Chihuahuan Desert). Protozoa in culture began to encyst at 37 degrees C. Cysts survived the upper end of daily temperatures (37-55 degrees C), and could be stimulated to excyst if temperatures were reduced to 15 degrees C or lower. Results from this study suggest that cool desert protozoa are influenced negatively by increased summer precipitation during excessive summer temperatures, and that desert protozoa may be adapted to a specific desert's temperature and precipitation regime.     

Moderate Warming in Microcosm Experiment Does Not Affect Microbial Communities in Temperate Vineyard Soils

Changes in the soil microbial community structure can lead to dramatic changes in the soil ecosystem. Temperature, which is projected to increase with climate change, is commonly assumed to affect microbial communities, but its effects on agricultural soils are not fully understood. We collected soil samples from six vineyards characterised by a difference of about 2 °C in daily soil temperature over the year and simulated in a microcosm experiment different temperature regimes over a period of 1 year: seasonal fluctuations in soil temperature based on the average daily soil temperature measured in the field; soil temperature warming (2 °C above the normal seasonal temperatures); and constant temperatures normally registered in these temperate soils in winter (3 °C) and in summer (20 °C). Changes in the soil bacterial and fungal community structures were analysed by automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA). We did not find any effect of warming on soil bacterial and fungal communities, while stable temperatures affected the fungal more than the bacterial communities, although this effect was soil dependent. The soil bacterial community exhibited soil-dependent seasonal fluctuations, while the fungal community was mainly stable. Each soil harbours different microbial communities that respond differently to seasonal temperature fluctuations; therefore, any generalization regarding the effect of climate change on soil communities should be made carefully.     

Precipitation magnitude and timing differentially affect species richness and plant density in the sotol grassland of the Chihuahuan Desert

Arid and semi-arid environments are dynamic ecosystems with highly variable precipitation, resulting in diverse plant communities. Changes in the timing and magnitude of precipitation due to global climate change may further alter plant community composition in desert regions. In this study, we assessed changes in species richness and plant density at the community, functional group, and species level in response to variation in the magnitude of natural seasonal precipitation and 25% increases in seasonal precipitation [e.g., supplemental watering in summer, winter, or summer and winter (SW)] over a 5-year period in a sotol grassland in the Chihuahuan Desert. Community species richness was higher with increasing winter precipitation while community plant density increased with greater amounts of winter and summer precipitation, suggesting winter precipitation was important for species recruitment and summer precipitation promoted growth of existing species. Herb and grass density increased with increasing winter and summer precipitation, but only grass density showed a significant response to supplemental watering treatments (SW treatment plots had higher grass density). Shrubs and succulents did not exhibit changes in richness or density in response to natural or supplemental precipitation. In this 5-year study, changes in community species richness and density were driven by responses of herb and grass species that favored more frequent small precipitation events, shorter inter-pulse duration, and higher soil moisture. However, due to the long life spans of the shrub and succulent species within this community, 5 years may be insufficient to accurately evaluate their response to variable timing and magnitude of precipitation in this mid-elevation grassland.     

A microtiter plate procedure for evaluating fungal functional diversity on nitrogen substrates

Ascertaining the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on belowground diversity is of paramount importance because pollution from agricultural practices and industrialization are increasing worldwide. Although we have methods for evaluating soil microbial function with respect to carbon use our ability to evaluate use of other compounds is limited. Because N cycling is of paramount importance in ecosystem stability, evaluation of the ability of saprophytic soil fungi to use a variety of N sources would provide important information on possible alterations in ecosystem stability with disturbance. Herein is described a procedure (soil Nitrolog) for evaluating fungal functional diversity on a suite of 95 different N substrates. The soil Nitrolog procedure was evaluated by testing fungal functional diversity at two sites in Big Bend National Park (Chihuahuan Desert), differing in elevation and plant community composition. The soil Nitrolog procedure distinguished between the two sites based on overall use of the 95 N substrates. In addition the procedure detected differences in individual substrate use based on site specific plant compounds in response to changes in the amount of N entering these ecosystems from anthropogenic inputs.     

Aboveground net primary production dynamics in a northern Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem

Aboveground net primary production (ANPP) dynamics are a key element in the understanding of ecosystem processes. For semiarid environments, the pulse-reserve framework links ANPP to variable and unpredictable precipitation events contingent on surficial hydrology, soil moisture dynamics, biodiversity structure, trophic dynamics, and landscape context. Consequently, ANPP may be decoupled periodically from processes such as decomposition and may be subjected to complex feedbacks and thresholds at broader scales. As currently formulated, the pulse-reserve framework may not encompass the breadth of ANPP response to seasonal patterns of precipitation and heat inputs. Accordingly, we examined a 6-year (1999–2004), seasonal record of ANPP with respect to precipitation, soil moisture dynamics, and functional groups in a black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) grassland and a creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) shrubland in the northern Chihuahuan Desert. Annual ANPP was similar in the grassland (51.1 g/m²) and shrubland (59.2 g/m²) and positively correlated with annual precipitation. ANPP differed among communities with respect to life forms and functional groups and responses to abiotic drivers. In keeping with the pulse-reserve model, ANPP in black grama grassland was dominated by warm-season C₄ grasses and subshrubs that responded to large, transient summer storms and associated soil moisture in the upper 30 cm. In contrast, ANPP in creosotebush shrubland occasionally responded to summer moisture, but the predominant pattern was slower, non-pulsed growth of cool-season C₃ shrubs during spring, in response to winter soil moisture accumulation and the breaking of cold dormancy. Overall, production in this Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem reflected a mix of warm-temperate arid land pulse dynamics during the summer monsoon and non-pulsed dynamics in spring driven by winter soil moisture accumulation similar to that of cool-temperate regions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Drought‐resistant fungi control soil organic matter decomposition and its response to temperature

Microbial‐mediated decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) ultimately makes a considerable contribution to soil respiration, which is typically the main source of CO₂ arising from terrestrial ecosystems. Despite this central role in the decomposition of SOM, few studies have been conducted on how climate change may affect the soil microbial community and, furthermore, on how possible climate‐change induced alterations in the ecology of microbial communities may affect soil CO₂ emissions. Here we present the results of a seasonal study on soil microbial community structure, SOM decomposition and its temperature sensitivity in two representative Mediterranean ecosystems where precipitation/throughfall exclusion has taken place during the last 10 years. Bacterial and fungal diversity was estimated using the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. Our results show that fungal diversity was less sensitive to seasonal changes in moisture, temperature and plant activity than bacterial diversity. On the other hand, fungal communities showed the ability to dynamically adapt throughout the seasons. Fungi also coped better with the 10 years of precipitation/throughfall exclusion compared with bacteria. The high resistance of fungal diversity to changes with respect to bacteria may open the controversy as to whether future ‘drier conditions’ for Mediterranean regions might favor fungal dominated microbial communities. Finally, our results indicate that the fungal community exerted a strong influence over the temporal and spatial variability of SOM decomposition and its sensitivity to temperature. The results, therefore, highlight the important role of fungi in the decomposition of terrestrial SOM, especially under the harsh environmental conditions of Mediterranean ecosystems, for which models predict even drier conditions in the future.     

Drought consistently alters the composition of soil fungal and bacterial communities in grasslands from two continents

The effects of short‐term drought on soil microbial communities remain largely unexplored, particularly at large scales and under field conditions. We used seven experimental sites from two continents (North America and Australia) to evaluate the impacts of imposed extreme drought on the abundance, community composition, richness, and function of soil bacterial and fungal communities. The sites encompassed different grassland ecosystems spanning a wide range of climatic and soil properties. Drought significantly altered the community composition of soil bacteria and, to a lesser extent, fungi in grasslands from two continents. The magnitude of the fungal community change was directly proportional to the precipitation gradient. This greater fungal sensitivity to drought at more mesic sites contrasts with the generally observed pattern of greater drought sensitivity of plant communities in more arid grasslands, suggesting that plant and microbial communities may respond differently along precipitation gradients. Actinobateria, and Chloroflexi, bacterial phyla typically dominant in dry environments, increased their relative abundance in response to drought, whereas Glomeromycetes, a fungal class regarded as widely symbiotic, decreased in relative abundance. The response of Chlamydiae and Tenericutes, two phyla of mostly pathogenic species, decreased and increased along the precipitation gradient, respectively. Soil enzyme activity consistently increased under drought, a response that was attributed to drought‐induced changes in microbial community structure rather than to changes in abundance and diversity. Our results provide evidence that drought has a widespread effect on the assembly of microbial communities, one of the major drivers of soil function in terrestrial ecosystems. Such responses may have important implications for the provision of key ecosystem services, including nutrient cycling, and may result in the weakening of plant–microbial interactions and a greater incidence of certain soil‐borne diseases.     

Comparative patterns of phenology and growth form diversity in two winter rainfall deserts: the Succulent Karoo and Mojave Desert ecosystems

A comparative study of community structure and seasonal growth dynamics in the arid winter rainfall regions of the Succulent Karoo in South Africa and the Mojave Desert of the United States suggests that remarkably divergent patterns of resource use and resultant growth form diversity exist in regions with outwardly similar climatic regimes. An understanding of these divergent patterns in the two winter rainfall deserts allows predictions to be made on vegetation response to global change. Above-ground plant growth in the Succulent Karoo begins with the first significant rains in late summer and continues through winter because moderate minimum temperatures allow continued growth. These communities have low structural diversity above-ground, but also below-ground, where root systems commonly do not exceed 20 cm in depth. These shallow root systems harvest water from upper soil horizons soon after rain falls, and growth declines as rainfall decreases in late spring. In contrast, low temperatures during winter inhibit growth in the Mojave Desert until early spring at a time when a mean 74% of the hydrologic year precipitation (July-June) has already occurred. Thus species in this structurally diverse system rely on deeper stores of water for growth in spring and early summer. A global change scenario of a 2 to 4°C increase in mean annual temperature and increased summer rainfall in the Mojave desert would be expected to produce similar conditions in the Mojave Desert to those that exist in the Succulent Karoo today. Assuming no genetic constraints on phenotypic plasticity, this would suggest increased species diversity and a decline in structural diversity in the Mojave Desert over evolutionary time. Increased summer rainfall in the Succulent Karoo would be expected to lead to invasions of grasses and thus increased competitive pressure reducing community diversity.     

桂林会仙喀斯特湿地芦苇群落土壤微生物数量动态分析

以广西桂林会仙喀斯特湿地典型芦苇植物群落为研究对象,于春、夏、秋、冬四个季节分别采集0~10cm,10~20 cm和20~30 cm不同层次的土壤样品,分析根际微生物与非根际微生物的数量特征及季节动态变化特点,探讨微生物数量对水热季节变化的响应规律。结果表明:不同季节的根际微生物与非根际微生物组成,均以细菌占绝对优势;微生物数量分布大小顺序为细菌放线菌真菌,细菌最高比例为96.62%,放线菌最高比例为35.38%,真菌的比例较低,最高仅为0.30%。细菌,真菌和放线菌的垂直变化明显,均随着土层的增加而呈现递减的趋势。不同土壤层次根际微生物与非根际微生物的季节变化一致,细菌数量表现为夏季秋季春季冬季,真菌数量表现为秋季夏季春季冬季,放线菌数量表现为秋季春季夏季冬季;细菌、放线菌、真菌的最大值分别为2.70×10~7、1.92×10~6、3.35×10~4cfu·g~-1,土壤微生物数量与土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷、全钾、速效氮、速效磷、速效钾等呈显著正相关。芦苇植物群落根际土壤微生物呈现出一定的根际效应,并与微生物数量、土壤深度、月平均降雨量和月平均气温变化等有关,而在冬季的根际效应则表现不显著。土壤养分含量是调节会仙喀斯特湿地土壤微生物数量变化的一个主要因素。     

Fungal Growth and Biomass Development is Boosted by Plants in Snow-Covered Soil

Soil microbial communities follow distinct seasonal cycles which result in drastic changes in processes involving soil nutrient availability. The biomass of fungi has been reported to be highest during winter, but is fungal growth really occurring in frozen soil? And what is the effect of plant cover on biomass formation and on the composition of fungal communities? To answer these questions, we monitored microbial biomass N, ergosterol, and the amount of fungal hyphae during summer and winter in vegetated and unvegetated soils of an alpine primary successional habitat. The winter fungal communities were identified by rDNA ITS clone libraries. Winter soil temperatures ranged between -0.6°C and -0.1°C in snow-covered soil. We found distinct seasonal patterns for all biomass parameters, with highest biomass concentrations during winter in snow-covered soil. The presence of plant cover had a significant positive effect on the amount of biomass in the soil, but the type of plant cover (plant species) was not a significant factor. A mean hyphal ingrowth of 5.6 m g(-1) soil was detected in snow-covered soil during winter, thus clearly proving fungal growth during winter in snow-covered soil. Winter fungal communities had a typical species composition: saprobial fungi were dominating, among them many basidiomycete yeasts. Plant cover had no influence on the composition of winter fungal communities.     

Distinct seasonal assemblages of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi revealed by massively parallel pyrosequencing

? Understanding the dynamics of rhizosphere microbial communities is essential for predicting future ecosystem function, yet most research focuses on either spatial or temporal processes, ignoring combined spatio-temporal effects. ? Using pyrosequencing, we examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of a functionally important community of rhizosphere microbes, the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. We sampled AM fungi from plant roots growing in a temperate grassland in a spatially explicit manner throughout a year. ? Ordination analysis of the AM fungal assemblages revealed significant temporal changes in composition and structure. Alpha and beta diversity tended to be negatively correlated with the climate variables temperature and sunshine hours. Higher alpha diversity during colder periods probably reflects more even competitive interactions among AM fungal species under limited carbon availability, a conclusion supported by analysis of beta diversity which highlights how resource limitation may change localized spatial dynamics. ? Results reveal distinct AM fungal assemblages in winter and summer at this grassland site. A seasonally changing supply of host-plant carbon, reflecting changes in temperature and sunshine hours, may be the driving force in regulating the temporal dynamics of AM fungal communities. Climate change effects on seasonal temperatures may therefore substantially alter future AM fungal community dynamics and ecosystem functioning.     

戴云山南坡不同海拔森林土壤微生物功能多样性特征及影响因素

土壤微生物作为森林生态系统的主要分解者,参与土壤养分循环,在维持土壤生态系统功能和服务中发挥着重要作用。探讨不同海拔土壤微生物群落结构和功能多样性的季节变化,对维持土壤生态系统稳定具有重要研究价值。以戴云山南坡不同海拔土壤为研究对象(900-1500 m),采用Biolog-ECO微平板法,研究不同海拔土壤微生物群落结构和功能多样性的季节变化(夏季与冬季),揭示驱动戴云山不同海拔土壤微生物季节变化的主要因素。结果表明:(1)夏季海拔1400 m区域土壤微生物的碳源利用最强,微生物活性最高。冬季表现为海拔900 m处土壤微生物对碳源利用最强,活性最高。(2)土壤微生物群落对碳源利用特征的研究表明,夏季与冬季中氨基酸类和羧酸类碳源是7个海拔土壤微生物利用的主要碳源,且夏季碳源利用程度高于冬季。(3)冗余分析表明夏季和冬季戴云山南坡7个海拔土壤微生物群落功能多样性均受土壤环境因子驱动,解释量分别为72.63%和44.12%,均高于地形因子的解释量。(4)土壤温度和全钾含量等因子是驱动夏季土壤微生物群落功能多样性变化的主要因素;土壤全钾、全磷、有效磷含量和坡向是驱动冬季土壤微生物群落功能多样性变化的主要因素。海拔和季节变化通过调节土壤理化性质和土壤酶活性,进而影响森林土壤微生物群落结构和功能多样性。     

Relating microbial community structure to functioning in forest soil organic carbon transformation and turnover

Forest soils store vast amounts of terrestrial carbon, but we are still limited in mechanistic understanding on how soil organic carbon (SOC) stabilization or turnover is controlled by biotic and abiotic factors in forest ecosystems. We used phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) as biomarker to study soil microbial community structure and measured activities of five extracellular enzymes involved in the degradation of cellulose (i.e., β‐1,4‐glucosidase and cellobiohydrolase), chitin (i.e., β‐1,4‐N‐acetylglucosaminidase), and lignin (i.e., phenol oxidase and peroxidase) as indicators of soil microbial functioning in carbon transformation or turnover across varying biotic and abiotic conditions in a typical temperate forest ecosystem in central China. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was performed to determine the interrelationship between individual PFLAs and biotic and abiotic site factors as well as the linkage between soil microbial structure and function. Path analysis was further conducted to examine the controls of site factors on soil microbial community structure and the regulatory pathway of changes in SOC relating to microbial community structure and function. We found that soil microbial community structure is strongly influenced by water, temperature, SOC, fine root mass, clay content, and C/N ratio in soils and that the relative abundance of Gram‐negative bacteria, saprophytic fungi, and actinomycetes explained most of the variations in the specific activities of soil enzymes involved in SOC transformation or turnover. The abundance of soil bacterial communities is strongly linked with the extracellular enzymes involved in carbon transformation, whereas the abundance of saprophytic fungi is associated with activities of extracellular enzymes driving carbon oxidation. Findings in this study demonstrate the complex interactions and linkage among plant traits, microenvironment, and soil physiochemical properties in affecting SOC via microbial regulations.     

Seasonal changes in an alpine soil bacterial community in the colorado rocky mountains

The period when the snowpack melts in late spring is a dynamic time for alpine ecosystems. The large winter microbial community begins to turn over rapidly, releasing nutrients to plants. Past studies have shown that the soil microbial community in alpine dry meadows of the Colorado Rocky Mountains changes in biomass, function, broad-level structure, and fungal diversity between winter and early summer. However, little specific information exists on the diversity of the alpine bacterial community or how it changes during this ecologically important period. We constructed clone libraries of 16S ribosomal DNA from alpine soil collected in winter, spring, and summer. We also cultivated bacteria from the alpine soil and measured the seasonal abundance of selected cultured isolates in hybridization experiments. The uncultured bacterial communities changed between seasons in diversity and abundance within taxa. The Acidobacterium division was most abundant in the spring. The winter community had the highest proportion of Actinobacteria and members of the Cytophaga/Flexibacter/Bacteroides (CFB) division. The summer community had the highest proportion of the Verrucomicrobium division and of beta-PROTEOBACTERIA: As a whole, alpha-Proteobacteria were equally abundant in all seasons, although seasonal changes may have occurred within this group. A number of sequences from currently uncultivated divisions were found, including two novel candidate divisions. The cultured isolates belonged to the alpha-, beta-, and gamma-Proteobacteria, the Actinobacteria, and the CFB groups. The only uncultured sequences that were closely related to the isolates were from winter and spring libraries. Hybridization experiments showed that actinobacterial and beta-proteobacterial isolates were most abundant during winter, while the alpha- and gamma-proteobacterial isolates tested did not vary significantly. While the cultures and clone libraries produced generally distinct groups of organisms, the two approaches gave consistent accounts of seasonal changes in microbial diversity.     

Temporal variation of Bistorta vivipara‐associated ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in the High Arctic

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are important for efficient nutrient uptake of several widespread arctic plant species. Knowledge of temporal variation of ECM fungi, and the relationship of these patterns to environmental variables, is essential to understand energy and nutrient cycling in Arctic ecosystems. We sampled roots of Bistorta vivipara ten times over two years; three times during the growing‐season (June, July and September) and twice during winter (November and April) of both years. We found 668 ECM OTUs belonging to 25 different ECM lineages, whereof 157 OTUs persisted throughout all sampling time‐points. Overall, ECM fungal richness peaked in winter and species belonging to Cortinarius, Serendipita and Sebacina were more frequent in winter than during summer. Structure of ECM fungal communities was primarily affected by spatial factors. However, after accounting for spatial effects, significant seasonal variation was evident revealing correspondence with seasonal changes in environmental conditions. We demonstrate that arctic ECM richness and community structure differ between summer (growing‐season) and winter, possibly due to reduced activity of the core community, and addition of fungi adapted for winter conditions forming a winter‐active fungal community. Significant month × year interactions were observed both for fungal richness and community composition, indicating unpredictable between‐year variation. Our study indicates that addressing seasonal changes requires replication over several years.     

Links between soil microbial communities and plant traits in a species‐rich grassland under long‐term climate change

Climate change can influence soil microorganisms directly by altering their growth and activity but also indirectly via effects on the vegetation, which modifies the availability of resources. Direct impacts of climate change on soil microorganisms can occur rapidly, whereas indirect effects mediated by shifts in plant community composition are not immediately apparent and likely to increase over time. We used molecular fingerprinting of bacterial and fungal communities in the soil to investigate the effects of 17 years of temperature and rainfall manipulations in a species‐rich grassland near Buxton, UK. We compared shifts in microbial community structure to changes in plant species composition and key plant traits across 78 microsites within plots subjected to winter heating, rainfall supplementation, or summer drought. We observed marked shifts in soil fungal and bacterial community structure in response to chronic summer drought. Importantly, although dominant microbial taxa were largely unaffected by drought, there were substantial changes in the abundances of subordinate fungal and bacterial taxa. In contrast to short‐term studies that report high resistance of soil fungi to drought, we observed substantial losses of fungal taxa in the summer drought treatments. There was moderate concordance between soil microbial communities and plant species composition within microsites. Vector fitting of community‐weighted mean plant traits to ordinations of soil bacterial and fungal communities showed that shifts in soil microbial community structure were related to plant traits representing the quality of resources available to soil microorganisms: the construction cost of leaf material, foliar carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratios, and leaf dry matter content. Thus, our study provides evidence that climate change could affect soil microbial communities indirectly via changes in plant inputs and highlights the importance of considering long‐term climate change effects, especially in nutrient‐poor systems with slow‐growing vegetation.