Low congruence between the diversity of Waxcap (Hygrocybe spp.) fungi and vascular plants in semi-natural grasslands

The diversity of fungi in semi-natural grasslands is poorly known, partly due to difficulties in species identification in the field but also because there are few specialists available. Diversity assessments of grassland fungi would be facilitated if a potential surrogate group for fungal diversity could be identified. The aim of this study was to assess whether plant diversity patterns in semi-natural grasslands are congruent with diversity patterns of Waxcap (Hygrocybe spp.) fungi. Waxcaps, together with several other groups of fungi (e.g. the genera Entoloma, Dermoloma, Camarophyllopsis, and the families Clavariaceae and Geoglossaceae) have habitat requirements similar to many plants typical for semi-natural grasslands and they are all threatened by ceased management and nutrient enrichment. Diversity data from 31 semi-natural grasslands in southern Sweden were used to examine if there is congruence in species richness, nestedness, β-diversity and species composition between plants and Hygrocybe fungi. Species richness of Hygrocybe was significantly positively correlated with plant richness, although the relationship was not strong (r²=0.14). Both plant and Hygrocybe species composition was significantly nested, i.e. species-poor sites contain a subset of species from species-rich sites, which suggests that rare species mostly occur in the species-rich sites. A species similarity analysis between the grassland sites showed that there is low overlap between species composition of plants and Hygrocybe, indicating that conservation decisions based solely on plants may not fulfil the requirements of the Hygrocybe species. The conclusion is that there is low congruence between plant and Hygrocybe species diversity, making plants a poor surrogate group for Hygrocybe fungi, and probably also for other grassland fungi.     

The effects of haloclines on the vertical distribution and migration of zooplankton

While the influence of horizontal salinity gradients on the distribution and abundance of planktonic organisms in estuaries is relatively well known, the effects of vertical salinity gradients (haloclines) are less well understood. Because biological, chemical, and physical conditions can vary between different salinity strata, an understanding of the behavioral response of zooplankton to haloclines is crucial to understanding the population biology and ecology of these organisms. We studied four San Francisco Bay copepods, Acartia (Acartiura) spp., Acartia (Acanthacartia) spp., Oithona davisae, and Tortanus dextrilobatus, and one species of larval fish (Clupea pallasi), in an attempt to understand how and why zooplankton respond to haloclines. Controlled laboratory experiments involved placing several individuals of each species in two 2-m-high tanks, one containing a halocline (magnitude varied between 1.4 and 10.0 psu) and the other without a halocline, and recording the location of each organism once every hour for 2-4 days using an automated video microscopy system. Results indicated that most zooplankton changed their vertical distribution and/or migration in response to haloclines. For the smaller taxa (Acartiura spp., Acanthacartia spp., and O. davisae), this behavior took the form of accumulating in or below the halocline, while the effects on the larger species (C. pallasi and T. dextrilobatus) were more subtle. C. pallasi yolk sac and 3- to 6-day-old larvae seemed to pause or remain in the halocline during their diel migration, while 14- to 17-day-old larvae appeared to avoid the halocline by remaining in deeper, more saline water. There were very few statistically significant effects of haloclines on the vertical distribution of T. dextrilobatus. Subsequent mortality experiments with Acartiura spp., Acanthacartia spp. and T. dextrilobatus indicated that the behavioral changes seen in the halocline studies were not associated with any salinity-induced mortality per se, although more subtle affects of physiological stress could not be ruled out. These results point to a high degree of flexibility in vertical migration behavior within a given species as well as large variation between species. Such behavioral flexibility is likely to be very important in allowing planktonic organisms generally, and estuarine organisms in particular, to maintain or alter position relative to currents, food, and predators.     

The impact of two insecticides on predatory ground beetles (Carabidae) in newly-sown grass

Field scale experiments carried out over three years showed that chlorpyrifos reduced the numbers of several carabid beetle species caught in pitfall traps. Fonofos seed treatment was also shown to affect selected species. Consideration of the biology of individuals of groups of species provided explanations of why some species such as Nebria brevicollis, Notiophilus spp., Bembidion spp., and Trechus quadristriatus were severely affected by one or other of the chemicals, whereas other species (e.g. Amara spp., Harpalus spp.) were able to survive or recolonise pastures shortly after chemical application. Measurements of elytral and pronotal widths and counts of mature eggs in N. brevicollis, which was trapped in reduced numbers over a long period, were made and provided some information about the mode of action of these chemicals.     

Moths in fragments: insights into the biology and ecology of the Australian endangered golden sun moth Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) in natural temperate and exotic grassland remnants

The conservation and management of endangered species requires an adequate understanding of their biology and ecology. Although there has been an increasing appreciation in Australia of the need for greater efforts to conserve insects, there is only limited information available that can be used to underpin conservation efforts. The endangered golden sun moth, Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) is a flagship species endemic to natural temperate grassland in south-eastern Australia. Most populations of this species are at considerable risk from habitat loss, weed invasion and inadequate management. Despite the considerable knowledge that exists about the species biology and ecology, efforts to improve the species conservation status are hampered because there are still critical gaps in our understanding of the species’ natural history. In particular, the ecology of the larvae is not known. Our study examined the abundance, population structure and reproductive biology of the moths in a broad sample of both natural temperate and exotic grassland remnants in and near Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in south-eastern Australia. The results fill critical gaps in the knowledge needed to achieve effective conservation management. From our findings, it is clear that the species inhabits grasslands dominated by a mixture of native wallaby grasses (Rytidosperma spp. (formerly Austrodanthonia)) and spear grasses (Austrostipa spp.). In contrast to earlier suggestions that S. plana is entirely confined to natural temperate grassland, mature and immature life stages of the species were also present in grasslands comprised entirely of the exotic Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana). Most of the S. plana populations surveyed in the ACT were characterised by low relative abundance with only very few large populations being recorded. The conservation of exotic grasslands as substitute habitat for S. plana is discussed and suggestions regarding future monitoring and research of the species are provided.     

Changes in Assumption Day Herbal Bouquets in Poland: A Nineteenth Century Study Revisited<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Changes in Assumption Day Herbal Bouquets in Poland: A Nineteenth Century Study Revisited. The aim of this study is to compare a list of plants blessed in herbal bouquets on Assumption Day (August 15th) in Poland over a century ago with the bouquets blessed in the same locations in 2009. Assumption Day has been the main occasion when plants are blessed in Polish Roman Catholic churches for centuries. Such bouquets, composed of medicinal herbs and crop plants, are long believed to possess apotropaic properties. In 1894–1899, Seweryn Udziela made an herbarium documenting the composition of these bouquets (over 100 species) in 13 locations in the Kraków area. In 2009, 482 bouquets were photographed on Assumption Day and the plant species were identified. Results indicate that only half the species from Udziela’s list are still blessed. A total of 233 taxa were found in the bouquets in 2009, an average of nine species per bouquet. The proportion of cultivated ornamentals has increased over time, whereas the proportion of wild species and dry grassland plants has decreased. The proportion of crop plants, as well as species from grassland and forest habitats, remained the same. The most commonly blessed species were Solidago spp., Tanacetum vulgare, Dahlia sp., Sanguisorba officinalis, Anethum graveolens, Achillea millefolium, Mentha spp., Zinnia elegans, Triticum sp., Avena sativa, and Sorbus aucuparia. The tradition of blessing bouquets continues, although the composition of the plant species has changed. These changes are due to alterations in the surrounding vegetation and the species of plants in cultivation, the transformation of species’ value from medicinal and apotropaic, the maintenance of floral traditions, and artistic competition.     

The evolutionary ecology of the Lygaeidae

The Lygaeidae (sensu lato) are a highly successful family of true bugs found worldwide, yet many aspects of their ecology and evolution remain obscure or unknown. While a few species have attracted considerable attention as model species for the study of insect physiology, it is only relatively recently that biologists have begun to explore aspects of their behavior, life history evolution, and patterns of intra‐ and interspecific ecological interactions across more species. As a result though, a range of new phenotypes and opportunities for addressing current questions in evolutionary ecology has been uncovered. For example, researchers have revealed hitherto unexpectedly rich patterns of bacterial symbiosis, begun to explore the evolutionary function of the family's complex genitalia, and also found evidence of parthenogenesis. Here we review our current understanding of the biology and ecology of the group as a whole, focusing on several of the best‐studied characteristics of the group, including aposematism (i.e., the evolution of warning coloration), chemical communication, sexual selection (especially, postcopulatory sexual selection), sexual conflict, and patterns of host‐endosymbiont coevolution. Importantly, many of these aspects of lygaeid biology are likely to interact, offering new avenues for research, for instance into how the evolution of aposematism influences sexual selection. With the growing availability of genomic tools for previously “non‐model” organisms, combined with the relative ease of keeping many of the polyphagous species in the laboratory, we argue that these bugs offer many opportunities for behavioral and evolutionary ecologists.     

First-Year Responses of Cheatgrass Following Tamarix spp. Control and Restoration-Related Disturbances

Current invasion ecology theory predicts that disturbance will stimulate invasion by exotic plant species. Cheatgrass or Downy brome (Bromus tectorum) was surveyed in three sites near Florence, Colorado, U.S.A., immediately following Tamarisk or Saltcedar (Tamarix spp.) control and restoration activities that caused disturbance. Despite predictions to the contrary, neither mowing with heavy machinery nor tilling for seedbed preparation stimulated invasion, with a trend for the opposite pattern such that highest percent cover of B. tectorum was observed in the least disturbed transects. Aerial application of imazapyr for Tamarix spp. control caused mortality of nearly all B. tectorum and other understory plant species in all sites. Mechanical control of Tamarix spp. will not necessarily result in increased abundance of invasive species already present, possibly due to the effects of mulch usually left on‐site. Imazapyr will control B. tectorum and other herbaceous understory species when applied aerially for Tamarix spp. control. These results are encouraging for managers of riparian systems who may fear that control of woody invasives will stimulate herbaceous invasions.     

Interspecific variation in patterns of adhesion of marine fouling to silicone surfaces

Abstract

The adhesion of six fouling organisms: the barnacle Balanus eburneus, the gastropod mollusc Crepidula fornicata, the bivalve molluscs Crassostrea virginica and Ostrea/Dendrostrea spp., and the serpulid tubeworms Hydroides dianthus and H. elegans, to 12 silicone fouling-release surfaces was examined. Removal stress (adhesion strength) varied among the fouling species and among the surfaces. Principal component analysis of the removal stress data revealed that the fouling species fell into two distinct groups, one comprising the bivalve molluscs and tubeworms, and the other the barnacle and the gastropod mollusc. None of the silicone materials generated a minimum in removal stress for all the organisms tested, although several surfaces produced low adhesion strengths for both groups of species. These results suggest that fouling-release materials do not rank (in terms of adhesion strength) identically for all fouling organisms, and thus development of a globally-effective hull coating will continue to require testing against a diversity of encrusting species.     

THE TROPHIC ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATER GAMMARUS SPP. (CRUSTACEA:AMPHIPODA): PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONAL FEEDING GROUP CONCEPT

Gammarus spp. are widespread throughout a diverse range of freshwater habitats and can be the dominant part of many benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages, in terms of both numbers and/or biomass. Although the vast majority of studies have emphasized the herbivorous nature of Gammarus spp. and their ‘shredder’ functional feeding group (FFG) classification, we show that a far wider food base is exploited than has been previously acknowledged. This ‘plasticity’ as herbivore/predator is linked to the success of Gammarus spp. in persisting in and colonizing/invading disturbance-prone ecosystems. Intraguild predation and cannibalism are more common than previously realized. This behaviour appears to be a causal mechanism in many amphipod species replacements. Additionally, Gammarus spp. are major predators of other members of the macroinvertebrate community. Furthermore, while many studies have emphasized fish predation on Gammarus spp., we illustrate how this fish: amphipod, predator: prey interaction may be a two-way process, with Gammarus spp. themselves preying upon juvenile and wounded/trapped fish. We urge that a new realism be adopted towards the trophic ecology of Gammarus spp. and their role as predators and prey and that previously established FFG assumptions of both the food and the feeder be questioned critically.     

Aegilops (Poaceae) in Italy: taxonomy,geographical distribution,ecology, vulnerability and conservation

ABSTRACT

Aegilops L. includes wild species from which, over millennia, man has cultivated forms of Triticum L. Ten species of Aegilops occur in Italy. Three species are allochthonous and eight out of ten species are recorded in the Apulia region. Five out of the ten species have been included in Red Lists. Each taxon is presented and discussed, citing old and new sites of occurrence, by examining specimens from many different herbaria, and describing their ecology and habitats, according to the Directive 92/43 EEC. A new taxonomic key, for the identification of all Aegilops species growing in Italy, is provided. The occurrence of Aegilops caudata L., A. peregrina (Hack. in J. Fraser) Maire & Weiller and A. speltoides Tausch in Italy is doubtful.     

The Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae (Pteridophyta) of Bolivia

A summary is presented of all Bolivian species of Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae. In total two species of Dicksoniaceae (Culcita 1 sp.,Dicksonia 1 sp.) and 34 species of Cyatheaceae (Sphaeropteris 1 sp.,Alsophila 5 spp.,Cyathea 26 spp.,Cnemidaria 2 spp.) are known. One hybrid inCyathea is recognized. The endemicCyathea dintelmannii is newly described, andCyathea herzogii from Bolivia and Peru is separated fromCyathea caracasana var.boliviana. Both species are illustrated. An artificial key to the Bolivian species of Cyatheaceae is provided.     

Hyphae of waxcap fungi colonise plant roots

The trophic strategy of the globally distributed waxcaps (Hygrophoraceae) is uncertain. Some clues point to a biotrophic mode, particularly the ¹³C and ¹⁵N (stable isotopes) signatures. The observation of dense basal hyphae of Hygrocybe fruit bodies being tightly attached to live fine roots may be indicative of a plant-derived nutritional habit. To further scrutinize this fungus–plant association, stipe base samples and attached plant fragments were examined histologically. Waxcap hyphae were found growing inside live fine roots of associated vegetation. Amplification and sequencing of waxcap DNA from living root tissues using species-specific PCR primers also confirmed their presence in live plant roots. We therefore conclude that this group of fungi has a biotrophic lifestyle with plants.     

Immunoblot Analysis of Exospore Polypeptides from Some Entomophilic Microsporidia12

ABSTRACT. Immunological relationships between genera and species of microsporidia were examined by immunoblot analysis. Exospore polypeptides from two Nosema spp., three Vairimorpha spp., and two undescribed Vairimorpha-like isolates were analyzed. Gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analysis revealed that a variety of polypeptides, mostly between 15,000 and 90,000 molecular weight, are present on the exospore. The three Vairimorpha spp. are closely related immunologically to each other, but less so to the two undescribed Vairimorpha-like isolates. The two Nosema spp. are immunologically distant from each other and from the Vairimorpha spp. Indirect evidence, however, indicated that many internal spore polypeptides present in both genera are similar. Cross-reactivity between exospore polypeptides from entomophilic microsporidia and antisera to a mammalian microsporidium, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, was very limited. These results indicate that immunoblot analysis of exospore polypeptides may be employed to investigate the interrelatedness of microsporidian species, and that exospore polypeptides of some microsporidia are sufficiently diverse to be of immunodiagnostic value.     

Seasonal responses of avian communities to invasive bush honeysuckles (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lonicera</Emphasis> spp.)

Invasive bush honeysuckles, Lonicera spp., are widely viewed as undesirable; however, the effects of Lonicera spp. on native fauna are largely unknown. We investigated how breeding and overwintering bird communities respond to the presence of Lonicera spp. by comparing communities in forested areas with Lonicera spp. to those with a native shrub understory. The dense understory created by Lonicera spp. was associated with a change in the breeding bird community. We found large increases in the densities of understory bird species (e.g. northern cardinals) and decreases in select canopy species (e.g. eastern wood-pewees) in Lonicera spp. sites. In winter, we observed greater densities of frugivorous birds (e.g. American robins) likely due to the fruits that remain on Lonicera spp.; however, there was no difference in the community composition between sites with and without Lonicera spp. Given the widespread distribution of Lonicera spp., this invasive species may facilitate the population increase and range expansion of selected bird species. Many bird species appear to utilize Lonicera spp. for nesting and foraging; therefore, its removal should be accompanied by restoring native shrubs that provide needed resources.     

Keratinophilic fungi isolated from antarctic soil

In the present study, 10 soil samples were collected aseptically from an equal number of areas of the Antarctic in the zone occupied by the 1986–1987 Italian expedition for research on keratinophilic fungi.Of particular interest was the isolation of a pathogenic fungus, Microsporum gypseum, from two sites in the base camp occupied by men and by skuas. Trichophyton terrestre was isolated from a site in which people worked and through which penguins and skuas passed.The most widespread fungal species were members of the genus Chrysosporium. Some of these species were isolated but not identified and this part of the study was still be completed.Another significant finding was the absence of fungi in one sample, while in another the widespread and abundant growth in all the seeded dishes of a single species of Chrysosporium.Other species in genera of general diffusion in many environments were also isolated : Aspergillus spp., Malbranchea sp., Mycelia sterilia spp., Paecilomyces sp., Penicillium spp. and Scopulariopsis spp.     

Keystone status of plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae): effect of control on biodiversity of native birds

The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) of the Qinghai–Xizang (Tibetan) plateau, People's Republic of China, has been considered a pest because it putatively competes with native livestock for forage and contributes to rangeland degradation. As a result the plateau pika has been poisoned across vast areas of the high alpine meadows of the plateau. The plateau pika has also been considered a keystone species for biodiversity on the plateau. As one test of the keystone species hypothesis, we investigated the effects of poisoning plateau pikas on avian species richness and abundance. We conducted standardized censuses of birds on a number of sites across the alpine grassland of Qinghai province on which pikas either had or had not been poisoned. Avian species richness and abundance were higher on non-poisoned sites, in particular for species that nest in pika burrows such as Hume's groundpecker (Pseudopodoces humilis) and six species of snowfinch (Montifringilla spp., Pyrgilauda spp.), and species that prey on pikas (upland buzzard, Buteo hemilasius; black-eared kite, Milvus lineatus). The plateau pika thus appears to be both an allogenic engineer and a keystone species. Poisoning pikas reduces biodiversity of native species on the Qinghai–Xizang plateau, therefore management decisions concerning plateau pikas should reflect caution and careful assessment.     

The Cyatheaceae (Polypodiopsida) of Peru

A summary is presented of all Peruvian species of scaly tree ferns (Cyatheaceae). A total of 83 species is native to Peru (Sphaeropteris 1 sp., Alsophila sect. Alsophila 9 spp., Alsophila sect. Gymnosphaera 1 sp., Cyathea 72 spp.), with 13 endemic species in Cyathea and one in Alsophila. The following new species are described and illustrated: Alsophila gastonyi, Cyathea chontilla, C. nephele, C. polliculi, and C. praetermissa. The genera Cnemidaria and Trichipteris are no longer recognized and merged in Cyathea. Necessary combinations are made for Cyathea alatissima, C. nervosa, and C. uleana. Cyathea serpens is presented in detail and its relationship is discussed. An artificial key to the Peruvian species of Cyatheaceae is provided.     

Prospects of molecular markers in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species diversity

Recent developments in genomics have opened up for newer opportunities to study the diversity and classification of fungi. The genus Fusarium contains many plant pathogens that attack diverse agricultural crops. Fusarium spp. are not only pathogenic to plants but are also known as toxin producers that negatively affect animal and human health. The identification of Fusarium species still remains one of the most critical issues in fungal taxonomy, given that the number of species recognized in the genus has been constantly changing in the last century due to the different taxonomic systems. This review focuses of various molecular-based techniques employed to study the diversity of Fusarium species causing diseases in major food crops. An introduction of fusarial diseases and their mycotoxins and molecular-marker-based methods for detection introduce the concept of marker application. Various well-known molecular techniques such as random amplified polymorphic DNA, amplification fragment length polymorphism, etc. to more modern ones such as DNA microarrays, DNA barcoding, and pyrosequencing and their application form the core of the review. Target regions in the genome which can be potential candidates for generation of probes and their use in phylogeny of Fusarium spp. are also presented. The concluding part emphasizes the value of molecular markers for assessing genetic variability and reveals that molecular tools are indispensable for providing information not only of one Fusarium species but on whole fungal community. This will be of extreme value for diagnosticians and researchers concerned with fungal biology, ecology, and genetics.     

The biology and ecology of the ocean sunfish <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mola mola</Emphasis>: a review of current knowledge and future research perspectives

Relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of the world’s largest (heaviest) bony fish, the ocean sunfish Mola mola, despite its worldwide occurrence in temperate and tropical seas. Studies are now emerging that require many common perceptions about sunfish behaviour and ecology to be re-examined. Indeed, the long-held view that ocean sunfish are an inactive, passively drifting species seems to be entirely misplaced. Technological advances in marine telemetry are revealing distinct behavioural patterns and protracted seasonal movements. Extensive forays by ocean sunfish into the deep ocean have been documented and broad-scale surveys, together with molecular and laboratory based techniques, are addressing the connectivity and trophic role of these animals. These emerging molecular and movement studies suggest that local distinct populations may be prone to depletion through bycatch in commercial fisheries. Rising interest in ocean sunfish, highlighted by the increase in recent publications, warrants a thorough review of the biology and ecology of this species. Here we review the taxonomy, morphology, geography, diet, locomotion, vision, movements, foraging ecology, reproduction and species interactions of M. mola. We present a summary of current conservation issues and suggest methods for addressing fundamental gaps in our knowledge.