Fungal conservation in Scotland: Recent progress and future priorities

Summary

In recent years, fungal conservation in Scotland has made substantial progress, particularly as a result of field surveys undertaken in support of the Biodiversity Action Plans developed for selected species. Results are presented from four recent surveys: (i) fungal diversity in conifer plantations, (ii) hydnoid (‘tooth’) fungi in coniferous forests, (iii) grassland fungi, (iv) fungal survey of the Mar Lodge Estate. These surveys have substantially improved knowledge of the conservation status of a number of threatened taxa, and have also provided insights into patterns of fungal diversity at a range of scales. The results indicate that some of the fungal communities of Scotland, such as those associated with unimproved grasslands, are of international conservation importance. The implications of the survey results for conservation management are discussed, and suggestions are made regarding priorities for future work. In particular, there is a need to provide conservation managers with guidance on how fungal conservation can be achieved in practice.     

A PCR-based method for detecting the mycelia of stipitate hydnoid fungi in soil

To reduce the reliance on sporocarp records for conservation efforts, information on the below-ground distribution of specific fungal species, such as stipitate hydnoid fungi, is required. Species-specific primers were developed within the internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) regions for 12 hydnoid fungal species including Bankera fuligineoalba, Hydnellum aurantiacum, H. caeruleum, H. concrescens, H. ferrugineum, H. peckii, Phellodon confluens, P. melaleucus, P. niger, P. tomentosus, Sarcodon glaucopus and S. squamosus. The specificity of the primer pairs was tested using BLAST searches and PCR amplifications. All primers amplified DNA only of the target species with the exception of those designed for P. melaleucus. In order to assess the ability of the primers to detect DNA from mycelium in soil, DNA extracted from soil samples taken from around solitary H. peckii sporocarps was amplified with the H. peckii primer 1peck and ITS2. H. peckii DNA was detected in 70% of all soil samples and up to 40 cm away from the base of individual sporocarps. The development of these species-specific primers provides a below-ground alternative for monitoring the distribution of these rare fungi.     

Sampling designs, field techniques and analytical methods for systematic plant population surveys

Summary Intense pressures on the use and management of land underscore the need for reliable and up-to-date information on the status of native species. The outcomes of the most recent plant population surveys commissioned by agencies are generally limited by faults or omissions in survey design. There is little guidance on how to design and implement field surveys of plant populations in ways that address the most pertinent gaps in our current knowledge and provide answers of known reliability. In this paper, I used the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria as a framework to define the data required from surveys to assess the conservation status of potentially threatened species. The criteria address the location and geographical range of extant populations, aspects of species' life history, the size and structure of extant populations and rates of change in abundance and range. I have described survey designs and sampling techniques for estimating these parameters. Choices of appropriate methods that consider trade-offs between desired levels of precision and rigour and sampling effort are illustrated using surveys of 13 Tasmanian Epacris species as examples. Key elements of the approach are: (i) systematic approaches to field searches and recording both positive and negative search outcomes; (ii) construction and testing of intuitive or quantitative distribution models in an explicit experimental framework; (iii) rigorous cost-effective sampling designs, systematic field methodologies and simple analytical techniques to estimate both the magnitude and uncertainty of distribution and abundance; (iv) assessment of the merits and limitations of alternative sampling options; and (v) inference of changes in distribution and abundance by judicious use of historical data and field evidence of recent population processes.     

5. NOTES ON A FEW S. RHODESIAN BIRDS

The Aquatic Warbler is a threatened Afro-Palaearctic migrant with a largely unknown distribution in the winter (non-breeding) season. Protection of wintering sites may be crucial for the conservation of the species. Previous studies have identified extensive areas of north-western sub-Saharan Africa that could potentially be occupied by the species during winter. However, these studies have not necessarily differentiated between potentially suitable and unsuitable habitat types at a spatial resolution appropriate for targeting field surveys. To identify specific sites that could be occupied by non-breeding Aquatic Warblers at a scale appropriate for targeted field surveys, we adopted a modelling approach that combined recent sightings from Djoudj, Senegal, with land cover and climate data. We produced maps of potential distribution using three maximum entropy models. While a paucity of sightings prevented a full test of these maps on independent records, the areas that were predicted to be potentially occupied included areas around which there are historical records. We suggest field surveys should be targeted towards sites in the Inner Niger Delta and a number of marshes along and away from the Niger River in Mali, and to sites in southern Mauritania.     

Spatial distribution of sporocarps of stipitate hydnoid fungi and their belowground mycelium

Interest in stipitate hydnoid fungi of the genera Bankera, Hydnellum, Phellodon and Sarcodon has increased due to the decline in numbers of sporocarps in Europe. Conservation of these fungi is hindered by a lack of understanding of their basic ecology. In particular, a better understanding of their belowground ecology is required. Real-time PCR in conjunction with spatially explicit sampling was used to quantify the relationship between sporocarps and mycelium of Hydnellum peckii and Phellodon tomentosus . Species-specific DNA of the target species was quantified in 100 soil samples collected on a 360 × 360 cm grid at five locations where sporocarps were present. All sporocarps within the grid and up to 2 m around the grid were mapped. Sporocarp production did not occur over the whole extent of the belowground mycelium of these two species, and mycelium extended up to 330 cm away from the immediate site of sporocarp production. Spatial analyses using Kernel-smoothing and Moran's I correlograms showed that, with a single exception, there was no quantitative relationship between sporocarp distribution and the belowground abundance of mycelium. These findings have important implications for the conservation of this rare group of fungi.     

The ability of Nature Reserves to conserve medicinal plant resources: A case study in northeast China

Medicinal plants are important resources and are under serious threat due to human interference and climate change. We used species richness maps to find hotspots of medicinal plant localities and then modeled the environmental variables with a large effect on their distribution. We began by using a combination of species distribution models (SDMs) and geographic information system (GIS) tools to generate species richness maps of medicinal plants in northeast China. First, we conducted a detailed investigation of 2884 study plots in northeast China and selected 49 medicinal plant species for further analysis. The field surveys performed for this study spanned four years and identified a large number of new populations of medicinal plants in the forests of northeast China. We modeled and mapped the potential distributions of these 49 species and found that species richness hotspots are concentrated in the eastern and northeastern areas of the study region. We then analyzed the results of jackknife tests and found that the most important environmental variables on medicinal plant distribution are related to precipitation. Finally, we used the geographic distribution of medicinal plant richness to evaluate the ability of existing Nature Reserves to conserve these plants. By acquiring model data and using SDM and GIS to evaluate the current distribution and richness of medicinal plants, we are able to evaluate their current protection status and make recommendations about their utilization. This analysis could be expanded to assess medicinal plant populations in other regions where there are adequate records of the current distribution of medicinal plants.     

Modelling the Species Distribution of Flat-Headed Cats (Prionailurus planiceps), an Endangered South-East Asian Small Felid

Background

The flat-headed cat (Prionailurus planiceps) is one of the world''s least known, highly threatened felids with a distribution restricted to tropical lowland rainforests in Peninsular Thailand/Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. Throughout its geographic range large-scale anthropogenic transformation processes, including the pollution of fresh-water river systems and landscape fragmentation, raise concerns regarding its conservation status. Despite an increasing number of camera-trapping field surveys for carnivores in South-East Asia during the past two decades, few of these studies recorded the flat-headed cat.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, we designed a predictive species distribution model using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm to reassess the potential current distribution and conservation status of the flat-headed cat. Eighty-eight independent species occurrence records were gathered from field surveys, literature records, and museum collections. These current and historical records were analysed in relation to bioclimatic variables (WorldClim), altitude (SRTM) and minimum distance to larger water resources (Digital Chart of the World). Distance to water was identified as the key predictor for the occurrence of flat-headed cats (>50% explanation). In addition, we used different land cover maps (GLC2000, GlobCover and SarVision LLC for Borneo), information on protected areas and regional human population density data to extract suitable habitats from the potential distribution predicted by the MaxEnt model. Between 54% and 68% of suitable habitat has already been converted to unsuitable land cover types (e.g. croplands, plantations), and only between 10% and 20% of suitable land cover is categorised as fully protected according to the IUCN criteria. The remaining habitats are highly fragmented and only a few larger forest patches remain.

Conclusion/Significance

Based on our findings, we recommend that future conservation efforts for the flat-headed cat should focus on the identified remaining key localities and be implemented through a continuous dialogue between local stakeholders, conservationists and scientists to ensure its long-term survival. The flat-headed cat can serve as a flagship species for the protection of several other endangered species associated with the threatened tropical lowland forests and surface fresh-water sources in this region.     

In search of critically endangered species: the current situation of two tiny salamander species in the Neotropical mountains of Mexico

Worldwide, one in every three species of amphibian is endangered, 39 species have gone extinct in the last 500 years and another 130 species are suspected to have gone extinct in recent decades. Of the amphibians, salamanders have the highest portion of their species in one of the risk categories, even higher than the frogs. To date there have been few studies that have used recent field data to examine the status of populations of endangered salamanders. In this study we evaluate the current situation of two tiny salamanders, Parvimolge townsendi and Thorius pennatulus, both of which are distributed at intermediate elevations in the mountains of the northern Neotropics and are considered to be critically endangered; the first has been proposed as possibly extinct. By carrying out exhaustive surveys in both historical and potentially suitable sites for these two species, we evaluated their abundance and the characteristics of their habitats, and we estimated their potential geographic distribution. We visited 22 sites, investing 672 person-hours of sampling effort in the surveys, and found 201 P. townsendi salamanders in 11 sites and only 13 T. pennatulus salamanders in 5 sites. Both species were preferentially found in cloud forest fragments that were well conserved or only moderately transformed, and some of the salamanders were found in shade coffee plantations. The potential distribution area of both species is markedly fragmented and we estimate that it has decreased by more than 48%. The results of this study highlight the importance of carrying out exhaustive, systematic field surveys to obtain accurate information about the current situation of critically endangered species, and help us better understand the crisis that amphibians are facing worldwide.     

A review of Bahamian ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) biogeography

Abstract. The results of recent surveys for ants on Staniel Cay, Exumas (and surrounding small cays) and the northeastern region of Andros are presented. These records are compiled with all previously published collection records of ants from the Bahamas into a single database. A list of all known Bahamian species is presented, in accord with current taxonomy. Distributions within the Bahamas are given, along with the status of each species with reference to its origin (endemic, native, or exotic). At present seventy-five named species of ants are known from the Bahamas, which shares 60% of its ant fauna with Florida and 71% with Cuba. More than one third of the species (37%) are exotics, which appear to exist primarily in areas characterized by human disturbance, and apparently have not invaded the native vegetation to a large degree. Both historical and ecological factors are likely to have played important roles in shaping present-day Bahamian ant species diversity and distribution. The number of species on all major Bahamian islands from which ants have been collected is presented as a function of island area. Most islands have not been very thoroughly surveyed. The species-area relationship for the more thoroughly surveyed islands is relatively flat (z= 0.06). Further collecting in this archipelago will probably lead to the discovery of additional species.     

Hypogeous sequestrate fungi in South America – how well do we know them?

Collecting and studying hypogeous sequestrate fungi and their particular fruiting biology has always been challenging and intriguing for scientists. However, knowledge of hypogeous taxa has for a long time been limited mainly to the Northern Hemisphere, and more recently, Australia. Nevertheless, cumulative information on sequestrate fungi for South America (SA) has increased considerably over the years, and constitutes by itself, the aim of this review. We have reviewed the available published literature, from 1880 until recent times, to extract information on records, ecology, and morphological characteristics of hypogeous sequestrate fungi from SA. Based on the 172 taxa cited in the available literature, a trend of increasing interest in the study of these fungi in the region is apparent, yet with an uneven distribution among countries, climate belts, and nature of forest habitats. Hypogeous truffle-like species in SA play a key role in regulating nutrient and carbon cycles and in all ecosystem multifunctionality. The symbiotic status is provided for most species listed, and mutualism, especially ectomycorrhizal, is predominant (82 %). The hypogeous sequestrate fungi in SA are an understudied group of fungi, with exceptional anatomical and biological features as well as in many cases intriguing phylogenetic relationships, requiring more attention and analysis from mycologists.     

California dragonfly and damselfly (Odonata) database: temporal and spatial distribution of species records collected over the past century

The recently completed Odonata database for California consists of specimen records from the major entomology collections of the state, large Odonata collections outside of the state, previous literature, historical and recent field surveys, and from enthusiast group observations. The database includes 32,025 total records and 19,000 unique records for 106 species of dragonflies and damselflies, with records spanning 1879–2013. Records have been geographically referenced using the point-radius method to assign coordinates and an uncertainty radius to specimen locations. In addition to describing techniques used in data acquisition, georeferencing, and quality control, we present assessments of the temporal, spatial, and taxonomic distribution of records. We use this information to identify biases in the data, and to determine changes in species prevalence, latitudinal ranges, and elevation ranges when comparing records before 1976 and after 1979. The average latitude of where records occurred increased by 78 km over these time periods. While average elevation did not change significantly, the average minimum elevation across species declined by 108 m. Odonata distribution may be generally shifting northwards as temperature warms and to lower minimum elevations in response to increased summer water availability in low-elevation agricultural regions. The unexpected decline in elevation may also be partially the result of bias in recent collections towards centers of human population, which tend to occur at lower elevations. This study emphasizes the need to address temporal, spatial, and taxonomic biases in museum and observational records in order to produce reliable conclusions from such data.     

黏菌分布格局与生态学研究进展

黏菌是一类广泛分布于全球各种陆地生态系统的菌物,生态功能独特。随着物种资源调查的极大拓展以及分子标记和高通量测序技术等的成熟应用,黏菌的生态学研究在近年来取得了长足的发展。本文综述了国内外黏菌物种分布与群落生态学的研究进展,旨在为基于经典分类和分子标记研究黏菌的物种演替、群落结构和生态作用等提供重要参考和有益借鉴。     

The Wallacean Shortfall and the role of historical distribution records in the conservation assessment of an elusive Neotropical snake in a threatened landscape

Documenting species distribution is essential to extinction risk asessments and subsequent conservation actions. Historical records are thus essential to understand how species are distributed and how their range has changed over time. However, using historical records might contribute to overestimating the species current range and misrepresent their conservation status. Here, we illustrate the pitfalls of this approach using a widespread but elusive Neotropical snake species, Philodryas livida (Dipsadidae Bonaparte, 1838). We mapped occurrences of this species over time and calculated its Extent of Occurrence and Area of Habitat. Our results show that due to the intense, widespread anthropic land-use transformation since the discovery of P. livida in 1920, most historical localities are now likely unsuitable for its occurrence and both its current Extent of Occurrence and Area of Habitat become remarkably smaller (5.7% and 19.1% remaining, respectively) if only localities from the last 30 years are considered. Apart from the natural elusiveness of the species, intense habitat loss and fragmentation may also explain the low number of recent records of P. livida, all concentrated within or near protected areas, indicating a putative decline in range relevant to its conservation status. We thus highlight how failing to consider the date of records and the associated land-use change over time might underestimate species range reduction and thus threat status. We strongly encourage the inclusion of the date of each occurrence record in conservation assessments, as suggested by the IUCN’s mapping standards, such that historical records are carefully considered, especially in highly dynamic and threatened biomes such as the Cerrado savannas in Brazil.     

The distributions of howling monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. palliata</Emphasis>) in southeastern Mexico and Central America

We compared the distributions of Alouatta palliata and A. pigra in southeastern Mexico and Central America with geographic and ecological features to infer current barriers and ecological preferences. Distribution data were obtained from museum specimen localities, study sites, historic records and field surveys and integrated into digital elevation and ecosystem maps using GIS. A. pigra evidently occurs at a number of sites above 2,000 m, where temperatures can even drop below zero on some days of the year, thus indicating a broader ecological tolerance than previously reported. Both species occupy a number of vegetation types and can be found in seasonal and nonseasonal forests. We identified the highland massif of northern Central America and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation as a geographic barrier that separates the species. In the past, distribution maps for these species have indicated adjacent contiguous ranges, but we propose that they are largely separated by these mountains. There are two contact zones: a broad area of sympatry north of the highland massif in Mexico and a narrow zone in eastern Guatemala where parapatry is maintained by a river barrier and where only A. pigra occurs in the high elevations and cooler habitats inland. We explore an alternative biogeographic scenario for the split of the two species that accounts for the current distribution and differences in elevation and cold tolerances. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Cambios en la Diversidad en Siete Comunidades de Anuros en los Andes de Ecuador1

In the Ecuadorian Andes, populations of 24 anuran species have been reported to be in the process of decline or extinction since the late 1980s. In spite of these reports, quantitative data on population trends on anuran populations in Ecuador are scarce. We compare relative abundance and species composition in surveys conducted between 1967 and 1988 (initial surveys) with surveys conducted between March 2000 and November 2003 (recent surveys) in seven anuran communities in the Andes of Ecuador. A total of 76 anuran species was registered. In 88 populations corresponding to 73 species in seven localities, 56 of them decreased and 27 increased their relative abundances. We observed significant differences in the number of species present in the initial surveys with respect to recent surveys. In six out of seven localities we registered fewer species than previously, even though capture effort was greater in recent surveys. Differences were of higher magnitude for species with aquatic larvae (34 species in initial surveys and 17 in recent surveys). Differences were not significant for species with direct development (genus Eleutherodactylus; 28 species in initial and recent surveys). We registered increases in the upper limit of the altitudinal range for six species and nine new records for six localities.     

Last Chance to Know? Using Literature to Explore the Biogeography and Invasion Biology of the Death Cap Mushroom Amanita phalloides (Vaill. ex Fr. :Fr.) Link

The biogeography of fungi is poorly understood and a species in a novel location may be an introduction or an endemic newly identified within its native range. Using the literature of Amanita phalloides as a case study, we aim to illustrate both the limited utility of the historical record in establishing ectomycorrhizal (EM) species as introduced or invasive, and the difficulty of using modern records to establish a current biogeography. Amantia phalloides, the death cap mushroom, is deadly. It is a notorious fungus with a rich literature. Historical records can be used to explore the species’ distribution in North America, where the earliest publication on A. phalloides dates to 1834, and four different authors identified it as growing in California, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Maryland before 1910. In contrast, by mid-century field guides listed A. phalloides as rare on the West Coast and absent from the East Coast. In modern literature A. phalloides is described as a recently introduced and currently invasive species. The contradictions raise two questions: First, is A. phalloides an exotic to North America, and second, can early records be used to delineate the native distribution of any other less infamous EM fungus? We argue that confusion on the introduced status and biogeography of A. phalloides, and perhaps other fungi, is the direct result of shifting species concepts. When publications include an explicit species concept they can be used to establish A. phalloides as an introduction, for example on the East Coast of North America and in Australia. When species concepts are vague the literature is not useful and cannot be used to determine A. phalloides as an introduction, for example on the West Coast of North America or in Asia.     

2010-2020年中华穿山甲在中国的发现记录及保护现状

中国是中华穿山甲(Manis pentadactyla)历史分布区面积和野生种群数量最大的国家.中华穿山甲曾广泛见于我国长江以南各省,但20世纪中期以来,由于其甲片被作为贵重的中药材原料,加之地下野味市场的需求,大量非法捕猎使得我国野生穿山甲经历了剧烈的分布区缩减和种群下降.目前,中华穿山甲已被列为我国一级重点保护野生...     

New species and first records of trichomycetes from immature aquatic insects in Idaho

Trichomycetes, or gut fungi, are currently recognized as an ecological group of fungi and protists that inhabit the guts of immature insects or other stages and types of arthropods. The geographic distribution of these endosymbionts is worldwide. However trichomycete data from the Pacific Northwest are limited and this is the first account of gut fungi in Idaho. We report on the trichomycetes from a single site, Cottonwood Creek at Military Reserve Park, Boise, Idaho, where periodic surveys for more than a year resulted in the discovery of four newly named, three probably new but unnamed and 15 previously known species. Among the Harpellales three new species, Capniomyces sasquatchoides, Harpella torus and Lancisporomyces lampetriformis, are described, with two possibly new species of Smittium detailed but unnamed at this time pending further collections. A Genistelloides cf. hibernus also is included as a possible new species. One new species of Amoebidiales, Paramoebidium hamatum, is described as well. Hosts in which the gut fungi were recovered include larvae or nymphs of Diptera (Chironomidae and Simuliidae), Ephemeroptera (Baetidae) and Plecoptera (Capniidae and Taeniopterygidae). We hope to demonstrate that future surveys or bioprospecting investigations into the biodiversity of these early-diverging fungi in this region and worldwide remain promising.