Observations on Haemogregarina balli sp. n. from the Common Snapping Turtle,Chelydra serpentina*

SYNOPSIS. Haemogregarina balli sp. n. is described from the blood and organs of the common snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina serpentina and from the gastric and intestinal ceca of the presumed invertebrate hosts, the leeches Placobdella parasitica and Placobdella ornata. In the peripheral blood of the turtle, male and female gametocytes and immature erythrocytic schizonts are found within erythrocytes. The maturation of erythrocytic schizonts containing 6–8 merozoites is recorded from liver imprints. Schizonts with 13–25 merozoites are found in various cells of the liver, lung and spleen. In the gastric ceca of the leeches the host erythrocytes are digested, releasing the gametocytes and immature erythrocytic schizonts. Immature erythrocytic schizonts degenerate. Association of the gametocytes occurs in the intestinal ceca. The microgametocyte apparently gives rise to 4 nonmotile microgametes, one of which fertilizes the macrogamete while the other remain as condensed, residual nuclei on the periphery of the developing oocyst. The oocyst increases in size with maturity. A mature oocyst produces 8 sporozoites from a single germinal center. Sporozoites liberated from the oocyst are found in the tissues of the leech. Transovarial transmission of the parasite does not occur in the turtle. Attempts at experimental transmission failed. Previously unfed (control) leeches were negative for the parasite. Haemogregarina balli is compared with other haemogregarines described from C. serpentina. Features of species of Haemogregarina and Hepatozoon as well as the taxonomy of these genera are discussed.     

The species of the genus Micrambe Thomson 1863, from South Africa (Coleoptera: Cryptophagidae)

The 22 species of the genus Micrambe Thomson known from South Africa are analyzed and revised. Micrambe danielssoni sp. nov is described. Following a detailed study of the type material in different entomological collections, the status of two taxa is revised and two new synonymies are proposed: Micrambe kolbei Grouvelle 1908, syn. nov. for Micrambe minuta Grouvelle 1908, and Micrambe similis Bruce 1957, syn. nov. for Micrambe peringueyi Grouvelle 1908. A lectotypus is designated for one taxon: Micrambe capensis (Redtenbacher 1867). A key to all the species occurring in South Africa is presented.     

Morphological and Developmental Studies of the Snake Trypanosome Trypanosoma hydrae Ayala, Atkinson, Vakalis, 1983 in Experimentally Infected Hosts and in Culture

Trypanosoma hydrae from the broad-banded watersnake, Nerodia fasciata confluens, underwent development in the freshwater leech, Placobdella parasitica. Epimastigotes and transitional stages were present only in the crop and gastric caecum. Only one metacyclic form was observed. The potential of leeches as vectors is discussed. Two broad-banded watersnakes were infected by inoculation with culture forms of T. hydrae maintained on NNN medium. Parasitemias varied from 10⁵/ml to 10⁶/ml with dividing forms seen only rarely. A broad and a slender form of T. hydrae are described from the peripheral blood of a watersnake 7 months after an experimental infection.     

Morphological and molecular characterization of a new species of leech (Glossiphoniidae,Hirudinida): Implications for the health of its imperiled amphibian host (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis)

The hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) is among the most intriguing and imperiled amphibians in North America. Since the 1970s and 80s, western populations of the Ozark and eastern subspecies in Missouri have declined by nearly 80%. As a result of population declines, the Ozark hellbender was recently federally protected as an endangered species, and the eastern subspecies was granted protection under CITES. Although habitat degradation is probably the biggest threat to hellbender populations, recent evidence suggests that pathogens including chytrid fungus and “flesh-eating” bacteria may also contribute to declines in Ozark hellbenders. Leeches, which are very common on Ozark hellbenders, have recently been implicated as possible vectors of disease among Ozark hellbenders but have not been described in eastern hellbenders or outside of Missouri and Arkansas. We discovered a population of leeches on eastern hellbenders in southwest Virginia and confirmed that the species of leech is within the genus Placobdella, but is morphologically and genetically distinct from all previously described leech species. We named the new species Placobdella appalachiensis sp. n. Moser and Hopkins, based on the mountainous region in which it was discovered. Our surveys over a three consecutive year period suggested that this leech species may be patchily distributed and/or have a narrow geographic range. We consistently detected leeches at one site (mean prevalence in 80 hellbenders = 27.5%; median intensity = 3.0 leeches per parasitized hellbender [range 1 – >250 leeches]) during three years of surveys, but we never found leeches in any of our other seven study sites in two streams (mean prevalence in 139 hellbenders = 0%). We found a significant positive relationship between hellbender body size and the intensity of parasitism, and we suggest the possibility that the behavioral ecology of adults leading up to reproduction may increase their encounter rates with parasites. We discuss the potential conservation implications of discovery of leeches in this stream, and make recommendations for future mitigation and monitoring efforts.     

A new species of Crossidium (Pottiaceae,Bryophyta) from South Africa

Abstract

A new species of Crossidium (Pottiaceae, Bryophyta), C. karoo, is described for South Africa. It uniquely differs from congeners in tight encapsulation of the photosynthetic filaments by the clasping upper lamina.     

Phylogeny of macrophagous leeches (Hirudinea,Clitellata) based on molecular data and evaluation of the barcoding locus

Oceguera‐Figueroa, A., Phillips, A. J., Pacheco‐Chaves, B., Reeves, W. K. & Siddall, M. E. (2010). Phylogeny of macrophagous leeches (Hirudinea, Clitellata) based on molecular data and evaluation of the barcoding locus. —Zoologica Scripta, 40, 194–203. The phylogenetic relationships of macrophagous leech species are studied using two mitochondrial [cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and 12S rDNA] and two nuclear (28S rDNA and 18S rDNA) markers. The complete dataset analysed in this study included 49 terminals and 5540 aligned characters. Phylogenetic analyses were performed under two optimality criteria: Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood. The monophyly of the two currently recognized families (i.e. Erpobdellidae and Salifidae) is confirmed and well supported. The phylogenetic position of Gastrostomobdellidea is studied for the first time and found to be sister to family Salifidae nested well within Erpobdelliformes. Previously recognized taxonomic arrangements were evaluated and discarded through successive constraint analyses. Correlation between morphology and phylogeny was notable in Salifidae but not in Erpobdellidae. Variability of COI, the barcoding locus, was examined across species leading to the recognition of the invasive Barbronia weberi in Mexico, Costa Rica, Germany, South Africa and Taiwan.     

Quantifying the Trade in Cycads (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Encephalartos</Emphasis> Species) in the Traditional Medicine Markets of Johannesburg and Durban,South Africa<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Quantifying the Trade in Cycads ( Encephalartos Species) in the Traditional Medicine Markets of Johannesburg and Durban, South Africa. Cycads have been used for traditional purposes for centuries, mainly as a source of starch during droughts and famines. In South Africa, Encephalartos species are traded for traditional medicine (TM) in local TM markets. The 2009 IUCN Red Data assessment for South African flora lists 78% of the 37 indigenous Encephalartos species as “Threatened”, with three species already “Extinct in the Wild” (EW). South African cycads face an extinction crisis, primarily due to collecting for the horticultural trade. The trade in Encephalartos for TM also has a significant impact on several species, and is largely understudied. In this paper, the trade in Encephalartos for TM was quantified in South Africa’s two largest TM markets, Faraday in Johannesburg and Warwick in Durban. Harvesting of South African Encephalartos for TM involves the removal of bark strips and/or whole stem sections. Encephalartos species were sold at 26% and 13% of the stalls at Faraday and Warwick, respectively, with an estimated 9.0 metric tons traded at Warwick in 2009. Stem samples purchased in the markets were assigned to stem diameter size classes using a size class chart, and regression analysis was used to validate the allocations. Most harvesting was from sub-adult and adult cycads, and it appears that bark strips are removed from large arborescent plants, whereas smaller individuals and subterranean-stemmed species are harvested by removing the entire plant. There is generally a positive relationship between stem diameter and leaf base length as well as stem diameter and pith radius. The former can be used as a predictor of stem diameter size class for market samples that prove difficult to assign to diameter classes using the chart. Overall, this is the first study to quantify the trade in Encephalartos for TM in South Africa with reference to the size classes of the plants traded.     

Germ-line cysts are formed during oogenesis in Erpobdella octoculata (Annelida,Clitellata, Erpobdellidae)

Abstract

Erpobdella octoculata (Clitellata, Hirudinea, Erpobdellidae) has paired ovarian sacs, each containing several rod-shaped structures termed ovarian bodies. Oogenesis takes place within the ovarian bodies. We show that in the apical part of the bodies the germ-line cells form syncytial cysts of cells interconnected by stable intercellular bridges. Germ-line cyst architecture is broadly similar to that of other clitellate annelids; that is, each germ cell has only one intercellular bridge connecting it to the anuclear cytoplasmic mass, the cytophore. Unlike germ-line cysts described in other leech species, the cytophore in cysts of E. octoculata is poorly developed, taking the form of thin cytoplasmic strands. Oogenesis in E. octoculata is meroistic because the germ cells forming the cysts (cystocytes) have diverse fates, i.e., nurse cells and oocytes appear. One large ramified cell (apical cell) occurs within the apical part of the ovarian body. We compare the ultrastructure of the apical cell found in E. octoculata with that of apical cells described recently in some hirudiniform leeches. The germ-line cysts as well as the oocytes are enveloped by somatic follicular cells. As in other leeches, the follicular cells surrounding the growing oocytes have cytoplasm perforated by intracellular canals. In view of the many similarities between E. octoculata ovarian bodies and the ovary cords described in glossiphoniids and especially in hirudiniform leeches, we suggest that the ovarian bodies found in E. octoculata are in fact modified ovary cords.     

Sucking of human blood by Placobdella costata (O. F. Müller, 1846) (Hirudinida: Glossiphoniidae): Case study with notes on body form

1. Four events of Placobdella costata sucking human blood are described.
2. Human blood was sucked by both adult and juvenile specimens of P. costata.
3. The feeding strategies of juveniles under parental care are presented.
4. New data on juvenile specimens'' body form are presented.
5. Information on the potential role of mammals in dispersion and habitat preferences of leeches P. costata is considered.

     

Record of Blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus (Steindachner, 1864) in the Eerste River catchment,Western Cape province,South Africa

Oreochromis aureus was imported from Israel into South Africa in 1959 but data on its current status in South Africa are lacking. Genomic DNA was extracted and the COI gene amplified at the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity. The identity of the sequences and specimens was determined using the Barcode of Life Data Systems and GenBank. Morphological and genetic assessment demonstrated that 11 specimens collected from two farm dams in the Eerste River System, Western Cape province, were Oreochromis aureus. A MaxEnt model compiled using global distribution, rainfall and temperature data predicted that large areas of southern Africa were climatically suitable for this species, indicating considerable invasion debt in southern Africa. As a result, surveys to assess for the extent of the invasion in South Africa and eradication of existing populations, if feasible, are recommended management actions.     

NEW ARRENURUS SPECIES (ACARI,HYDRACHNELLAE, ARRENURIDAE) FROM SOUTHERN AFRICA

SUMMARY

Five new Arrenurus spp, from Southern Africa are described: A. amoenus sp. nov. from Natal, A. agnewi sp. nov., A. curtipalpus sp. nov., A. pedatus sp. nov. and A. cavatus sp. nov. from Botswana. The species from Natal came from an older collection belonging to the National Institute for Water Research. The species from Botswana were collected recently by Dr J.D. Agnew¹

The water mite fauna of South Africa is only partly known. Therefore it is important that collectors should know that alcohol and formalin are not suitable fixatives. Fixing and storing is most successful in the following mixture: 5 parts glycerin, 2 parts glacial acetic acid and 3 parts water.     

Exploring the Afromontane centre of endemism: Kniphofia Moench (Asphodelaceae) as a floristic indicator

Aim The genus Kniphofia contains 71 species with an African–Malagasy distribution, including one species from Yemen. The genus has a general Afromontane distribution. Here we explore whether Kniphofia is a floristic indicator of the Afromontane centre of endemism and diversity. The South Africa Centre of diversity and endemism was explored in greater detail to understand biogeographical patterns. Location Africa, Afromontane Region, southern Africa, Madagascar and Yemen. Methods Diversity and endemism for the genus were examined at the continental scale using a chorological approach. Biogeographical patterns and endemism in the South Africa Centre were examined in greater detail using chorology, phenetics, parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) and mapping of range‐restricted taxa. Results Six centres of diversity were recovered, five of which are also centres of endemism. Eight subcentres of diversity are proposed, of which only two are considered subcentres of endemism. The South Africa Centre is the most species‐rich region and the largest centre of endemism for Kniphofia. The phenetic analysis of the South Africa Centre at the full degree square scale recovered three biogeographical areas that correspond with the subcentres obtained from the chorological analysis. The PAE (at the full degree square scale) and the mapping of range‐restricted taxa recovered two and six areas of endemism (AOEs), respectively. These latter two approaches produced results of limited value, possibly as a result of inadequate collecting of Kniphofia species. Only two AOEs were identified by PAE and these are embedded within two of the six AOEs recovered by the mapping of range‐restricted taxa. All the above AOEs are within the three subcentres found by chorological and phenetic analysis (at the full degree square scale) for the South Africa Centre. Main conclusions The centres for Kniphofia broadly correspond to the Afromontane regional mountain systems, but with some notable differences. We regard Kniphofia as a floristic indicator of the Afromontane Region sensu lato. In southern Africa, the phenetic approach at the full‐degree scale retrieved areas that correlate well with those obtained by the chorological approach.     

Invasion status of Florida bass Micropterus floridanus (Lesueur, 1822) in South Africa

Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides are a popular North American angling species that was introduced into South Africa in 1928. To enhance the largemouth bass fisheries, Florida bass Micropterus floridanus were introduced into KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, in 1980. Knowledge on the status of M. floridanus in South Africa is required, because it lives longer and reaches larger sizes than M. salmoides, which may result in heightened impacts on native biota. Because M. floridanus are morphologically similar, but genetically distinct from M. salmoides, the distribution of this species was assessed by genetically screening 185 Micropterus sp. individuals sampled from 20 localities across South Africa using the mitochondrial ND2 gene. Individuals with mitochondrial DNA matching M. salmoides were recovered from 16 localities, whereas M. floridanus mitochondrial DNA was recovered from 13 localities. At nine localities (45%), the mitochondrial DNA of both species was detected. These results demonstrate M. floridanus dispersal to multiple sites across South Africa.     

Generic relationships of Oparanthus and Petrobium,especially with reference to Bidens (Compositae,Heliantheae, Coreopsidinae)

Oparanthus with two species from the Tubuai Islands of the South Pacific Ocean and the monotypicPetrobium from St. Helena in the South Atlantic are judged to belong more properly withinBidens. Comparisons of diagnostic morphological features are provided, and the necessary combinations are made, includingBidens rapensis (F. Brown) Stuessy andB. tubuaiensis (F. Brown) Stuessy.     

Coexistence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Placobdella costata</Emphasis> (Fr. Müller, 1846) (Hirudinida: Glossiphoniidae) and mud turtle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Emys orbicularis</Emphasis>

Emys orbicularis is receding from Europe, mainly due to anthropogenic habitat changes. Its parasite, Placobdella costata, is widely distributed within both the former and the present distribution range of the host. Though closely associated with the mud turtle, it may have other hosts (birds, amphibians, reptiles). Its reproductive period coincides with that of its host’s migration to the breeding grounds, thus facilitating dispersal of the parasite. Based on literature data we have analyzed the geographic spread of P. costata and mud turtle to observe the possible overlap of their habitats. Observations on the population of mud turtle and the associated leech species (P. costata) were carried out in eastern Poland — Podlasie Lowland. The studies were conducted in spring and summer in 1986–1993. The leeches were collected from the turtles caught in the water and on land. Observations showed that most leeches were found on turtles inhabiting the lake or moving to a breeding area. The greatest intensity of invasion was observed in June and July and that most leeches were observed in female E. orbicularis characterized by greater length of the carapace and weight, compared with males and juvenile individuals.     

Hyaluronidase activity in leeches (Hirudinea)

The leech hyaluronoglucuronidase (hyaluronidase I) was identified in Erpobdellidae (Nephelopsis obscura and Erpobdella punctata) and Glossiphoniidae (Desserobdella picta) and historically described from Hirudinidae (Hirudo medicinalis). A second leech hyaluronidase (hyaluronidase II) which hydrolyzed only a few bonds to for hyaluronan oligosaccharides larger than 6500 Da, was found in Glossiphoniidae (Helobdella stagnalis, Glossiphonia complanata, Placobdella ornata, and Theromyzon sp.) and in Haemopidae (Haemopis marmorata). The distribution of the two hyaluronidases in leech occurred in both orders (Arhynchobdellida and Rhynchobdellida) and in macrophagous and haematophagous feeding types whereas the liquidosomatophagous leeches only had hyaluronidase II.     

Redescription of the hagfishes (Myxinidae: Eptatretus) from southern Africa

The hagfishes of the genus Eptatretus (Myxinidae) from southern Africa are known from three poorly studied species: Eptatretus hexatrema, a common species from Namibia and South Africa; Eptatretus profundus, known only from the holotype collected off Cape Point (South Africa); and Eptatretus octatrema, known from two syntypes from the Agulhas Bank (South Africa). Taxonomic, morphological and distributional information about these three species are reviewed and updated based on the examination of additional specimens collected in South African waters. Eptatretus hexatrema differs from all congeners by having six pairs (rarely seven) of gill apertures arranged in a straight line, 3/2 multicusp pattern of teeth, total cusps 44–49, trunk pores 53–60, total pores 93–107, preventral length 45.1–57.4% TL, tail length 11.6–14.3% TL, tail depth 5.7–8.1% TL, and two bilaterally symmetrical nasal-sinus papillae. Eptatretus octatrema differs from all congeners by having usually eight (some specimens with seven) pairs of gill apertures arranged in a straight line, 3/2 multicusp pattern of teeth, 42–46 total cusps, 22–26 prebranchial pores, 63–68 trunk pores, 104–117 total pores, and two bilaterally symmetrical nasal-sinus papillae. Eptatretus profundus differs from all congeners by having five pairs of gill apertures arranged in a straight line, 3/2 multicusp pattern of teeth, total cusps 42–46, prebranchial pores 12–15, branchial pores 4–5, trunk pores 48–52, tail pores 15–17, total pores 81–86, and body depth at PCD 7.0–9.7% TL. An identification key for the hagfishes from southern Africa is provided and the conservation status of E. octatrema, a species considered to be Critically Endangered, is discussed in light of the new findings.     

Non-Marine Algae of Africa. A Bibliography (1799–2010)

Anatoliy Levanets and Leon van Rensburg

2010, AndCork Publishers, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Soft cover, 134 pages

ISBN 978-0-620-48118-2; price R50.00 (South Africa), US$15.00 (International); prices include postage

Obtainable from 20868421@nwu.ac.za or levanets@mail.ru; electronic copy available on request     

Control of diapausing codling moth,Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in wooden fruit bins,using entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae)

Stacked wooden fruit bins are frequent overwintering sites for overwintering diapausing codling moth larvae. Control strategies against the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in South Africa have been hampered by the reinfestation of orchards from nearby stacked infested fruit bins and by the movement of infested bins between orchards. Worldwide, wooden fruit bins are systematically being replaced with plastic bins, however in South Africa this will not be accomplished in the near future. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of two recycled commercially available entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) species, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema feltiae, as well as of a local species, Steinernema yirgalemense, to disinfest miniature wooden fruit bins under controlled conditions in the laboratory. After dipping miniature bins loaded with codling moth larvae in a suspension of 25?IJs/mL of each of the three EPN species, under optimum conditions of temperature and humidity, the highest percentage of control was obtained using S. feltiae (75%). The addition of adjuvants significantly increased S. feltiae infectivity to >95%, whereas it did not result in a significant increase in H. bacteriophora or S. yirgalemense infectivity.