Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women

Mycoplasma genitalium is an emerging sexually transmitted pathogen implicated in urethritis in men and several inflammatory reproductive tract syndromes in women including cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and infertility. This comprehensive review critically examines epidemiologic studies of M. genitalium infections in women with the goal of assessing the associations with reproductive tract disease and enhancing awareness of this emerging pathogen. Over 27,000 women from 48 published reports have been screened for M. genitalium urogenital infection in high- or low-risk populations worldwide with an overall prevalence of 7.3% and 2.0%, respectively. M. genitalium was present in the general population at rates between those of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Considering more than 20 studies of lower tract inflammation, M. genitalium has been positively associated with urethritis, vaginal discharge, and microscopic signs of cervicitis and/or mucopurulent cervical discharge in seven of 14 studies. A consistent case definition of cervicitis is lacking and will be required for comprehensive understanding of these associations. Importantly, evidence for M. genitalium PID and infertility are quite convincing and indicate that a significant proportion of upper tract inflammation may be attributed to this elusive pathogen. Collectively, M. genitalium is highly prevalent in high- and low-risk populations, and should be considered an etiologic agent of select reproductive tract disease syndromes in women.     

Population-based genetic epidemiologic analysis of Chlamydia trachomatis serotypes and lack of association between ompA polymorphisms and clinical phenotypes

Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases worldwide. Urogenital strains are classified into serotypes and genotypes based on the major outer membrane protein and its gene, ompA, respectively. Studies of the association of serotypes with clinical signs and symptoms have produced conflicting results while no studies have evaluated associations with ompA polymorphisms. We designed a population-based cross-sectional study of 344 men and women with urogenital chlamydial infections (excluding co-pathogen infections) presenting to clinics serving five U.S. cities from 1995 to 1997. Signs, symptoms and sequelae of chlamydial infection (mucopurulent cervicitis, vaginal or urethral discharge; dysuria; lower abdominal pain; abnormal vaginal bleeding; and pelvic inflammatory disease) were analyzed for associations with serotype and ompA polymorphisms. One hundred and fifty-three (44.5%) of 344 patients had symptoms consistent with urogenital chlamydial infection. Gender, reason for visit and city were significant independent predictors of symptom status. Men were 2.2 times more likely than women to report any symptoms (P=0.03) and 2.8 times more likely to report a urethral discharge than women were to report a vaginal discharge in adjusted analyses (P=0.007). Differences in serotype or ompA were not predictive except for an association between serotype F and pelvic inflammatory disease (P=0.046); however, the number of these cases was small. While there was no clinically prognostic value associated with serotype or ompA polymorphism for urogenital chlamydial infections except for serotype F, future studies might utilize multilocus genomic typing to identify chlamydial strains associated with clinical phenotypes.     

A clinical approach to determine false positive findings of clinical endometritis by vaginoscopy by the use of uterine bacteriology and cytology in dairy cows

Clinical endometritis in dairy cows is defined as mucopurulent or purulent vulvar discharge 21 days or more after parturition. The diagnosis of clinical endometritis is commonly based on vaginal examination. Techniques to reduce the proportions of false negative findings have been described. This paper discusses a clinical approach to determine the proportion of false positive findings that might occur by vaginal inspection. The consequences of false positive findings in dairy practice are unnecessary or inadequate treatments. In research, incorrect diagnoses have an impact on the interpretation of studies on the diagnosis and treatment of clinical endometritis. The objective of the present study was to compare intrauterine bacteriology and endometrial cytology in cows diagnosed with clinical endometritis with findings obtained by vaginoscopy. Clinical endometritis was defined as mucopurulent or purulent vulvar discharge. On two commercial dairy farms, cows were examined 21 to 28 d postpartum. Uterine samples (n = 230) were collected from cows with clinical endometritis with the cytobrush technique to determine the proportion of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and to culture smears for aerobic bacteria. Two threshold values for the proportion of PMN (5 and 18%) were chosen as possible indicators for an inflamed endometrium. Common uterine pathogens A. pyogenes and E. coli were found in 33.5 and 10.4% of the samples, respectively. With increasing vaginal discharge score, proportion of samples positive for A. pyogenes increased significantly. The proportion of cows exceeding the thresholds for PMN increased with vaginal discharge score and the presence of A. pyogenes.Considering only the presence of aerobic uterine pathogens and a proportion of PMN above the threshold values of 5 and 18% as indicative for endometritis, a proportion of 17.3 and 28.5%, respectively, of diagnoses by vaginoscopy were false positive.     

Vaccines for Chlamydia infections of the female genital tract.

Genital infection with Chlamydia trachomatis is an escalating global public health concern causing considerable morbidity and socioeconomic burden worldwide. Although antibiotics are used to treat symptomatic urogenital infections, chlamydial infection remains asymptomatic in approximately 50% of infected men and 70% of infected women. The major clinical manifestations of genital chlamydial infection in women include mucopurulent cervicitis, endometritis and pelvic inflammatory disease. Genital infection with C. trachomatis markedly enhances the risk for reproductive tract sequelae in women, including tubal factor infertility, chronic pain and ectopic pregnancy. Definitive infection control of chlamydial infections will likely be achievable through a safe and efficacious vaccine. This will require identifying protective chlamydial antigens in animal models as well as identifying effective adjuvants and delivery systems that target subunit vaccines to immune inductive sites or secondary lymphoid tissues, and will be safe for use in humans.     

需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定技术诊断需氧菌性阴道炎的临床价值

目的探讨需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定技术诊断需氧菌性阴道炎（AV）的临床价值。方法分别采用镜检法和需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定技术对200例疑似AV患者进行检测。结果在200例疑似AV患者中,镜检法检出阳性患者174例,需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定法检出阳性患者169例。以镜检法为诊断标准,需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定技术的敏感性为94．83％、特异性为84．62％。两种方法的符合率为93．50％[（165＋22）／200],两者呈中度一致性（Kappa=0．735,P〉0．05）。结论需氧菌阴道炎／细菌性阴道病联合测定技术诊断AV具有很高的敏感度和特异度,与目前临床使用的常规镜检法符合率高,且该方法操作简便、快速,值得临床推广使用。     

Bacterial vaginosis among a group of married Jordanian women: occurrence and laboratory diagnosis

A total of 310 vaginal swabs collected from a group of married Jordanian women complaining of vaginal discharge were examined for bacterial vaginosis. The scoring system of Nugent for the interpretation of Gram staining was employed. This system revealed the presence of the condition in 29.7% of patients. Results obtained using the scoring system correlated significantly with the detection of clue cells and the scarcity of white blood cells in the vaginal discharge. An inverse relationship was found between bacterial vaginosis and Lactobacillus morphotypes determined by Gram staining. No definite relationship was detected between bacterial vaginosis and the recovery of Gardnerella vaginalis by culture as this organism was isolated from swabs which according to the Nugent criterion were negative for bacterial vaginosis. Bacterial vaginosis among the women investigated was more prevalent than vaginitis caused by Trichomonas vaginalis or yeasts.     

Determination of chlamydial load and immune parameters in asymptomatic, symptomatic and infertile women

The regulation of immune response and chlamydial infectious load in the cervix of human females is largely unknown. Infectious load in terms of inclusion-forming units (IFUs) was determined by quantitative cultures in Chlamydia -positive women, in asymptomatic women, women with mucopurulent cervicitis (MPC) and women with fertility disorders (FD). CD4⁺, CD8⁺, CD14⁺ cells, myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (mDCs and pDCs) in the cervix were quantified by flow cytometry. Cervical cytokines, levels of β-estradiol and C-reactive protein (CRP) in serum and cervical immunoglobulin A antibody to chlamydial major outer membrane protein antigen, chlamydial heat shock protein 60 and 10 antigens were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In asymptomatic women, chlamydial load showed significant positive correlations with CD4, mDCs, interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-2; however, negative correlations were found with CD8 and IL-8 levels. In women with MPC, chlamydial IFUs correlated positively with CD8, pDC number, IL-8, CRP and interferon-γ (IFN-γ). In women with FD, chlamydial load showed a significant positive correlation with the pDC number, IL-10 and estradiol level and a negative correlation with CD4 and IFN-γ. Overall, these results suggest that the interplay between chlamydial infectious load and host immune responses may be the deciding factor for the clinical condition presented during Chlamydia trachomatis infection.     

Asymptomatic gonorrhoea and chlamydial infection in rural Tanzanian men.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of urethritis due to Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydial infection trachomatis in rural Tanzanian men DESIGN: About 500 men aged 15-54 years were selected from each of 12 rural communities by random cluster sampling; interviewed concerning past or present symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases; and asked to provide a first catch urine specimen, which was tested for pyuria with a leucocyte esterase dipstick test. Subjects with symptoms or with a positive result on testing were examined, and urethral swabs were taken for detection of N gonorrhoeae by gram stain and of C trachomatis by antigen detection immunoassay. SETTING: Mwanza region, north western Tanzania. SUBJECTS: 5876 men aged 15-54 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of urethral symptoms, observed urethral discharge, pyuria, urethritis ( > 4 pus cells per high power field on urethral smear), N gonorrhoeae infection (intracellular gram negative diplococci), and C trachomatis infection (IDEIA antigen detection assay). RESULTS: 1618 (28%) subjects reported ever having a urethral discharge. Current discharge was reported by 149 (2.5%) and observed on examination in 207 (3.5%). Gonorrhoea was found in 128 subjects (2.2%) and chlamydial infection in 39 (0.7%). Only 24 of 158 infected subjects complained of urethral discharge at the time of interview (15%). CONCLUSION: Infection with N gonorrhoeae and C trachomatis is commonly asymptomatic among men in this rural African population. This has important implications for the design of control programmes for sexually transmitted disease.     

21143例阴道炎病原菌的研究

目的：探讨21143例不同年龄段职业女性阴道炎病原菌的分布及特征。方法：对2009年1月至2010年1月参加健康体检的21143例不同年龄段职业女性的阴道分泌物进行常规湿片法和革兰染色法联合检查。结果：发现阴道炎病原菌检出率为44．96％,其中细菌性阴道病检出率最高。在20岁以下和59岁以上阴道炎患者数量太少,未作统计。各年龄组间滴虫性检出率差异无显著性（P〉0．05）,而细菌性阴道病和念珠茵性阴道炎的检出率差异均有显著性（P〈0．05）。结论：在参加健康体检的21143例不同年龄段职业女性中,细菌性阴道病是最常见的阴道炎类型,其次是念珠茵性阴道炎,滴虫感染占第三位,且细菌性阴道病和念珠茵性阴道炎的检出率在不同年龄段的差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。     

Prevalence of chlamydial genital infection and associated risk factors in adolescent females at an urban reproductive health care center in Croatia

The study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of chlamydial genital infection in sexually active, urban adolescent females 15-19 years; to identify behavioral, demographic, and clinical factors associated with chlamydial infections; and to develop criteria for potential screening strategies. 500 adolescent women, median age 17.7 years, who visited gynecological outpatient clinic in Children's Hospital Zagreb for different reasons were enrolled in this study. Gynecological exam, colposcopy, detection of chlamydial infection by the rapid direct immunoassay of endocervical swab (Clearview Chlamydia-Unipath), endocervical cytological examination--Papanicolaou smear, and questionnaire to obtain demographic, social, behavioral and presence of symptoms data were performed. Positive Chlamydia trachomatis test were found in 16.4% of participants, cytologic cervical abnormalities--cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN I-CIN III) were found in 25.2% and cytological signs of Human papilloma virus were found in 11.4%. Stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis identified five factors associated with infection: the age of menarche < or =13 years, > or =4 lifetime sexual partners, non-use of contraception (rare or never), cervical friability, and abnormal Papanicolaou test. Urban adolescent sexually active women are at high risk for chlamydial infection and other sexually transmitted diseases including HIV infection. Association between chlamydial genital infection and risk-taking sexual and contraceptive behavior was found. Routine Chlamydia trachomatis testing for this population is recommended as well as implementation of school based sexual health education because of their risk-taking sexual behavior.     

基层医疗机构对滴虫性、真菌性阴道炎最适检验方案的临床观察

目的通过不同的检测手段检测基层医院患者的阴道分泌物,了解滴虫性、真菌性阴道炎的检出率,从而探索基层医院最适的检验方案。方法采用回顾性分析,调取本基层医疗机构2010年1月至2013年12月在本院妇科门诊部就诊的900例女性患者,采取两种常用的阴道分泌物检测方法,即涂片镜检法（湿片法）和阴道分泌物p H值测定＋抗原检测（抗原法）,探索其滴虫性阴道炎和真菌性阴道炎的检出率。结果采用湿片法检测出滴虫性阴道炎阳性共144例,占总例数的16.00%;真菌性阴道炎阳性共207例,占总例数的23.00%;采用抗原法检测出滴虫性阴道炎阳性共179例,占总例数的19.89%;真菌性阴道炎阳性共253例,占总例数的28.11%。结论抗原法较湿片法敏感性和特异性好,结果客观易判读,两种方法差异有统计学意义,后者可作为基层医疗机构首选的阴道分泌物检测手段。     

青海高原地区7325例 藏族妇女阴道分泌物五联检测

目的了解青海高原地区藏族妇女阴道分泌物病原体感染情况。方法对本院2016年7月至2016年12月妇科门诊就诊的7 325例患者阴道分泌物五联检测结果进行回顾性分析。结果 7 325例阴道分泌物样本中过氧化氢阳性占82.8%,唾液酸苷酶阳性占53.5%,白细胞酯酶阳性占74.6%,β-葡萄糖醛酸苷酶阳性占75.9%,凝固酶阳性占70.5%。阴道分泌物样本中乳杆菌少或无占82.8%,其检出病原菌5 771例,阳性检出率为78.8%。各种阴道炎的构成比中需氧菌性阴道炎(AV)占25.4%,细菌性阴道炎(BV)占17.8%,念珠菌性阴道炎(VVC)占11.5%,滴虫性阴道炎(TV)占9.3%,混合性感染占36.0%。结论青海高原地区藏族妇女阴道病比较常见的是AV、BV、VVC,TV也多发,广大妇女应该给予重视,定期进行阴道分泌物常规检查,以便及时发现疾病,采取有效的防治措施,避免性传播疾病感染扩散。     

800例妇科门诊妇女阴道感染及微生态状况分析

目的了解普通妇科门诊妇女阴道分泌物病原体感染及阴道微生态状况。方法用革兰染色法检查普通妇科门诊妇女阴道分泌物,并进行Nugent评分。结果800例普通妇科门诊妇女阴道分泌物中,假丝酵母菌阳性236例,阳性率29．5％;阴道毛滴虫阳性21例,阳性率2．63％;Nugent评分：正常（0-3分）248例（31．0％）,临界（4-6分）283例（35．4％）,细菌性阴道病（BV）（7-10分）269例（33．6％）。结论妇科门诊妇女对各种病原微生物抵抗力不足,阴道微生态状况有待改善。     

Endpiece: The noble profession

ObjectivesTo assess whether bacterial vaginosis or chlamydial infection before 10 weeks'' gestation is associated with miscarriage before 16 weeks.DesignProspective cohort study.Setting32 general practices and five family planning clinics in south London.Participants1216 pregnant women, mean age 31, presenting before 10 weeks'' gestation.Results121 of 1214 women (10.0%, 95% confidence interval 8.3% to 11.7%) miscarried before 16 weeks. 174 of 1201 women (14.5%, 12.5% to 16.5%) had bacterial vaginosis. Compared with women who were negative for bacterial vaginosis those who were positive had a relative risk of miscarriage before 16 weeks'' gestation of 1.2 (0.7 to 1.9). Bacterial vaginosis was, however, associated with miscarriage in the second trimester at 13-15 weeks (3.5, 1.2 to 10.3). Only 29 women (2.4%, 1.5% to 3.3%) had chlamydial infection, of whom one miscarried (0.32, 0.04 to 2.30).ConclusionBacterial vaginosis is not strongly predictive of early miscarriage but may be a predictor after 13 weeks'' gestation. The prevalence of Chlamydia was too low to assess the risk, but it is unlikely to be a major risk factor in pregnant women.

What is already known on this topic

Miscarriages are common and associated with considerable morbidity and costsBacterial vaginosis is associated with miscarriage after 16 weeks'' gestation and preterm birth but the role of chlamydial infection is uncertain

What this study adds

Bacterial vaginosis is not a strong predictor of miscarriage before 16 weeks'' gestation but may be associated with miscarriage at 13-15 weeks'' gestationThe prevalence of chlamydial infection was too low for it to be a major risk factor for miscarriage in this population of healthy pregnant womenNon-invasive screening for bacterial vaginosis and chlamydial infection by using self administered vaginal swabs is feasible in pregnant women in the community     

Predictors of chlamydial infection and gonorrhea among patients seen by private practitioners.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the predictors of chlamydial infection and gonorrhea among patients tested by general practitioners. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: General private practice, family planning and abortion clinic, adolescent clinic, sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic and community health clinic in downtown Montreal. PATIENTS: The 2856 patients were included because of symptoms compatible with an STD, a history of sexual contact with a person known or suspected to have chlamydial infection, a history of a nonexclusive sexual relationship or presentation for an abortion. MEASURES: Patient information was obtained by the attending physician on a standard form. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for Chlamydia trachomatis and culture for Neisseria gonorrhoeae were performed on cervical (female) or urethral (male) samples. Stepwise logistic regression was used to identify the predictors of infection. RESULTS: The EIA results were positive in 11.1% of the cases and the culture results in 2.3%. Among the males chlamydial infection was independently associated with low age (odds ratio [OR] = 0.88 per year), heterosexuality (OR = 4.99), urethral discharge (OR = 3.74) and the absence of a history of gonorrhea (OR = 0.51). Gonorrhea was associated with urethral discharge (OR = 24.3) and homosexuality (OR = 3.68). Among the females chlamydial infection was associated with low age (OR = 0.79 per year), a history of sexual contact with a person known to have chlamydial infection (OR = 2.30), multiple sexual partners in the previous 12 months (OR = 1.60) and a reason for the test other than screening purposes (OR = 0.60). Gonorrhea was associated with a reason other than screening (OR = 0.24) and low age (OR = 0.74 per year). Among the patients tested for screening purposes age was the only significant predictor of chlamydial infection (OR = 0.79 per year), and the prevalence of gonorrhea was 0.4%. The actual rate of chlamydial infection was 11.8% among the patients younger than 25 years, 5.7% among those 25 to 34 years and 0.6% among those over 34. CONCLUSIONS: Age alone can be used as a criterion to screen for chlamydial infection among asymptomatic patients without a history of sexual contact with a person known or suspected to have such infection and with a history of a nonexclusive relationship. The prevalence in our population justifies screening people up to 34 years of age.     

Antibiotic sensitivity of Enterobacteriaceae isolated from women vagina and uterine cervix

Based on performed investigation in the group of 200 women treated for recurrent and chronic vaginitis and cervicitis, the characteristic of isolated microorganism was done. There were found series of drug-resistant bacteria in the vagina and uterine cervical canal in women with recurrent vaginitis and chronic cervicitis. In 42.6% of patients with diagnosed chronic cervicitis (Cervicitis chronica n = 50) Escherichia coli strains were isolated, 5% of which produced extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ES beta L). In women with recurrent vaginitis (Colpitis recidivans n = 150) Escherichia coli strains where isolated in 45.6%. Among them 4.5% produced ES beta L. Expression of beta-lactamases with broadened substrate spectrum was done in double-disc-test. CONCLUSIONS: 1. Study of antibiotic sensitivity of isolated bacteria should be a diagnostic standard in bacterial infections of uterine cervix and vagina. 2. The choice of appropriate antibiotics should take into consideration the drug-resistance mechanisms of isolated bacteria. 3. When drug-resistant bacteria are isolated, combined therapy should be applied.     

正常妇女和下生殖道炎症及不孕症时泌尿生殖道中的溶脲脲原体

本文报道165例妇女宫颈阴道分泌物和部分不育男性精液的溶脲脲原体的分离结果。正常妇女组检出率为33％(11/33)、宫颈炎和阴道炎组为67％(39/59)、不孕症组80％(35/44)、富颈癌组24％(5/21)。不孕夫妇中,13例男性精液检查有9例溶脲脲原体阳性。经比较有炎症组和不孕症组的溶脲脲原体检出率高于正常组2倍多,差异显著(P<0.01和<0.005)。鉴于溶脲脲原体作为人泌尿生殖道中的常住菌,其微生态意义与下生殖道炎症和某些不孕症的关系值得进一步深入研究。     

Endocervical Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Canadian adolescents.

The highest prevalence rate of sexually transmitted chlamydial infection is among adolescent girls. To determine the rate among predominantly asymptomatic girls who were seen at a pediatric gynecology unit and to identify those at high risk we screened 541 such patients from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1986, by means of direct fluorescent antibody testing; 422 (78.0%) were asymptomatic. The most common reason for presentation was a request for contraceptive advice (the reason for 59.2% of the patients). Of the 446 patients (82.4%) who were sexually active 66 (14.7%) had evidence of chlamydial infection; none of the 93 sexually inactive patients were infected. Neisseria gonorrhoeae was isolated from eight (1.5%) of the patients. The risk factors that correlated with chlamydial infection were abnormal vaginal discharge, abdominopelvic pain and an abnormal Papanicolaou test result. Because of the high morbidity rate associated with genital chlamydial infection and the high prevalence rate among adolescent girls, most of whom are asymptomatic, all sexually active teenagers should be screened.     

白带常规联合生化快速检测方法诊断下生殖道感染

目的 调查杭州市滨江区下生殖道感染情况.方法 采用白带常规检测方法联合需氧菌阴道炎/细菌性阴道病五项联合测定技术对就诊者的阴道分泌物进行检测.结果 在500名就诊者中,检出下生殖道感染患者465例,其中单一性感染216例(46.5％),混合感染患者249例(53.6％).在249例混合感染中,主要为需氧菌引起的合并感染,占混合感染的65.9％.结论 白带常规检测方法联合需氧菌阴道炎/细菌性阴道病五项联合测定技术的检测方法可对下生殖道感染作出全面明确诊断.     

细菌性阴道病联合检测技术在阴道感染诊断中的应用

目的探讨细菌性阴道病(BV)联合检测技术在阴道感染诊断中的应用价值。方法取2009年9月至2010年2月至苏州市木渎人民医院妇科门诊就诊的6 500例育龄期妇女阴道分泌物,分别对霉菌、滴虫、清洁度进行生理盐水涂片的检测与过氧化氢、唾液酸苷酶和白细胞酯酶三项联合测定。结果应用湿片镜检发现霉菌性阴道炎1 274例,阳性率为19.6%,滴虫性阴道炎195例,阳性率为3.0%。应用BV三项联合技术测定6 500例患者的阴道分泌物,BV阳性1 612例,阳性率为24.8%,其中BV合并霉菌性阴道炎感染465例,占BV发病的28.9%,BV合并滴虫感染79例,占BV发病的4.9%。结论三项联合检测技术操作简单、快速、准确,从功能学分别反映阴道正常菌和致病菌的指标,可与白带常规镜检互补,建议作为阴道分泌物常规检查对阴道感染进行筛查。