Phylogeny and cryptic diversity in geckos (Phyllopezus; Phyllodactylidae; Gekkota) from South America's open biomes

The gecko genus Phyllopezus occurs across South America's open biomes: Cerrado, Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests (SDTF, including Caatinga), and Chaco. We generated a multi-gene dataset and estimated phylogenetic relationships among described Phyllopezus taxa and related species. We included exemplars from both described Phyllopezus pollicaris subspecies, P. p. pollicaris and P. p.przewalskii. Phylogenies from the concatenated data as well as species trees constructed from individual gene trees were largely congruent. All phylogeny reconstruction methods showed Bogertia lutzae as the sister species of Phyllopezus maranjonensis, rendering Phyllopezus paraphyletic. We synonymized the monotypic genus Bogertia with Phyllopezus to maintain a taxonomy that is isomorphic with phylogenetic history. We recovered multiple, deeply divergent, cryptic lineages within P. pollicaris. These cryptic lineages possessed mtDNA distances equivalent to distances among other gekkotan sister taxa. Described P. pollicaris subspecies are not reciprocally monophyletic and current subspecific taxonomy does not accurately reflect evolutionary relationships among cryptic lineages. We highlight the conservation significance of these results in light of the ongoing habitat loss in South America's open biomes.     

Pleistocene expansion and connectivity of mesic forests inside the South American Dry Diagonal supported by the phylogeography of a small lizard*

Traditionally focused on Amazonian and Atlantic rainforests, studies on the origins of high Neotropical biodiversity have recently shifted to also investigate biodiversity processes in the South American dry diagonal, encompassing Chaco, Cerrado savannas, and Caatinga seasonally dry tropical forests. The plateau/depression hypothesis states that riparian forests in the Brazilian Shield in central Brazil are inhabited by Pleistocene lineages, with shallow divergences and signatures of population expansion. Moreover, riparian forests may have acted as a vegetation network in the Pleistocene, allowing gene/species flow across the South American dry diagonal. We tested these hypotheses using Colobosaura modesta, a small gymnophthalmid lizard from forested habitats in the Cerrado savannas and montane/submontane forests in the Caatinga. We conducted phylogeographic analyses using a multi-locus dataset, tested alternative demographic scenarios with Approximate Bayesian Computation, and also employed species delimitation tests. We recovered a history of recent colonization and expansion along riparian forests, associated with Pleistocene climate shifts, and the existence of a new species of Colobosaura restricted to the Serra do Cachimbo region. We also present evidence that riparian forests have provided an interconnected network for forest organisms within the South American dry diagonal and that Pleistocene events played an important role in their evolutionary history.     

Environmental correlates of anuran beta diversity in the Brazilian Cerrado

Evolutionary processes are known to influence contemporary patterns of biological diversity, yet disentangling the effects of current and historical drivers of biodiversity patterns remain challenging. We use spatial analyses of community dissimilarity to generate hypotheses about the current and historical processes underlying patterns of beta diversity in anuran species in the Brazilian Cerrado. Specifically, we use a generalized dissimilarity modeling (GDM) approach to model compositional dissimilarity of anuran species and endemics as a function of geographic separation and local (within‐Cerrado) environmental conditions. To gain insight about potential historical processes, we incorporate information from biomes adjacent to the Cerrado to investigate whether environmental conditions in neighboring areas can help explain patterns of beta diversity within the Cerrado. Patterns of anuran beta diversity of both endemics and all species in the Cerrado appear to be strongly influenced by local environmental gradients, with elevation as one of the most important variables in all models. However, in models using endemic species only, environmental conditions of adjacent biomes were related to beta‐diversity patterns, and more strongly so, than to total species models. These results suggest that phylogenetic niche conservatism within species groups that invaded the Cerrado from adjacent biomes may cause these species to be restricted to environmental conditions within the Cerrado that are most similar to the conditions in the adjacent biome where they originated. Time‐calibrated phylogenies of Cerrado endemics and studies of ancestral and current ranges of Cerrado species are needed to test this hypothesis.     

Evidence for longitudinal migration by a “sedentary” Brazilian flycatcher,the Ash‐throated Casiornis

The digitalization of museum collections and concurrent increase in citizen‐science initiatives is ushering in an era of unprecedented availability of primary biodiversity data. These changes permit a reappraisal of phenological patterns of tropical species. I examined spatio‐temporal variation in the distribution patterns of an ostensibly sedentary endemic Brazilian flycatcher, the Ash‐throated Casiornis (Casiornis fuscus), using both specimen data from museums and sighting records and rich media data from citizen‐science initiatives. I found compelling evidence for partial intratropical longitudinal migration to Amazonia and the Cerrado biomes from the species’ core range in the semi‐desert Caatinga biome and adjacent ecotones. These records from outside of the Caatinga were distributed during the height of the dry season from April to October, although the Caatinga is not entirely vacated at this time. This pattern of partial migration leads to a doubling of the distributional range of Ash‐throated Casiornises and strongly suggests that the species is a breeding near‐endemic of the Caatinga biome. This pattern was potentially previously not apparent because of significant biases in specimen collection between biomes, giving a false sense of abundance in the Brazilian Amazon.     

Historical biogeography and diversification within the Neotropical parrot genus Pionopsitta (Aves: Psittacidae)

Aim We investigate spatial and temporal patterns of diversification within the Neotropical avifauna using the phylogenetic history of parrots traditionally belonging to the genus Pionopsitta Bonaparte 1854. This genus has long been of interest for those studying Neotropical biogeography and diversity, as it encompasses species that occur in most Neotropical forest areas of endemism. Location The Neotropical lowland forests in South and Central America. Methods Phylogenetic relationships were investigated for all species of the genus Pionopsitta and five other short‐tailed parrot genera using complete sequences of the mitochondrial genes cyt b and ND2 as well as 26 plumage characters. The resulting phylogeny was used to test the monophyly of the genus, investigate species limits, and as a framework for reconstructing their historical biogeography and patterns of diversification. Results We found that the genus Pionopsitta, as previously defined, is not monophyletic and thus the Chocó, Central American and Amazonian species will now have to be placed in the genus Gypopsitta. The molecular and morphological phylogenies are largely congruent, but disagree on the position of one of the Amazon basin taxa. Using molecular sequence data, we estimate that species within Gypopsitta diversified between 8.7 and 0.6 Ma, with the main divergences occurring between 3.3 and 6.4 Ma. These temporal results are compared to other taxa showing similar vicariance patterns. Main conclusions The results suggest that diversification in Gypopsitta was influenced mainly by geotectonic events, marine transgressions and river dynamics, whereas Quaternary glacial cycles of forest change seem to have played a minor role in the origination of the currently recognized species.     

Integrating phylogenetic and functional biodiversity facets to guide conservation: a case study using anurans in a global biodiversity hotspot

The Cerrado is one of the most threatened biomes in Brazil, with little spatial representation within the Protected Area network. Recently, proposed conservation plans worldwide have advocated for the use of multiple biodiversity facets to protect unique evolutionary and functional processes. Our aim was to identify areas with high biodiversity representativeness applying this multifaceted perspective, and propose conservation plans based on the joint analysis of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity. We used a database of the Brazilian National Program for Research in Biodiversity, which employs a standard protocol for sampling tadpoles. The Cerrado database includes samples from 165 water bodies spread over 15 localities, covering most of the Central Brazilian Cerrado. We selected four morphological traits to calculate functional diversity and used a dated phylogeny available in the literature to compute phylogenetic diversity. Our approach selected five priority areas for conservation, one of which is already protected. Our results highlighted the importance of four new areas which show high values of diversity, including original lineages and traits, and urgently need conservation prioritization. Furthermore, unlike the current protected network, our approach performs significantly better than random at protecting sites with high phylogenetic and functional diversity. We therefore discuss how the multifaceted indices considered can help protect key ecosystem functions and evolutionary legacy in anuran communities of the Brazilian Cerrado.     

The historical bridge between the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest of Brazil: a study of molecular phylogeography with small mammals

Abstract Aim To examine how the genetic diversity of selected taxa of forest‐dwelling small mammals is distributed between and within the major rain forest domains of Amazonia and Atlantic Forest and the intervening interior forests of Brazil, as inferred by the relationships between gene genealogies and geography. I also addressed the historical importance of the central Brazilian forests in connecting Amazon and Atlantic Forest populations of rodents and marsupials. Methods I evaluated variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene to estimate the levels of sequence divergence between those taxa occurring throughout the Amazon, Atlantic Forest, and forests in the Cerrado and Caatinga regions. I inferred the hierarchical relationships between haplotypes, populations and formal taxa using the cladistic approach of maximum parsimony. I compared areas and the clades identified by superimposing cladograms on the geographical distribution of samples. The degree of concordance both in phylogeny and the depth of the nodes in these phylogenies, in addition to patterns of geographical distribution of clades, permitted me to make inferences on how, when and where the taxa differentiated. Results Sequence similarity is often greater between samples from the Atlantic Forest and either Amazon or central Brazilian forests than it is within each of the two rain forest domains. The Atlantic Forest clades are either not reciprocally monophyletic or are the sister group to all the other clades. There is some indication of northern and southern components in the Atlantic Forest. Given the geographical distribution of clades and the relatively deep levels of divergence, the central Brazilian area does not behave as a separate region but is complementary to either Amazon or Atlantic Forest. Patterns of area relationships differ across taxa, suggesting that different processes and/or historic events affected the diversification within each lineage. Main conclusions The Amazon and the Atlantic forests are not exclusive in terms of their small mammal faunas; both overlap broadly with taxa occurring in gallery forests and dry forests in central Brazil. Central Brazilian forests are an integral part of the evolutionary scenario of lowland small mammals, playing an important role as present and past habitats for rain forest species. Therefore, representatives from this area should always be included in analyses of the evolutionary history of lowland rain forest faunas. The incongruence of branching patterns among areas is in agreement with recent results presented for Neotropical passerine birds and indicates that a single hypothesis of Neotropical area relationships is unlikely. These findings reinforce the idea that speciation in the Neotropics will not be explained by any single model of vicariance or climatic changes.     

Ant diversity decreases during the dry season: A meta-analysis of the effects of seasonality on ant richness and abundance

Tropical studies traditionally describe insect diversity variation throughout the year. The temporally structured responses of insect assemblages to climate seasonality vary across ecosystems due to gradients of resource availability and limiting ecological factors. These idiosyncratic responses might be particularly true across the vast geographical range of the Brazilian territory, including various environments that harbor one of the most diverse ant faunas worldwide. This study addressed the relationship between ant diversity and climatic seasonality, performing a quantitative review of the published data on ant diversity collected in Brazil. We investigated the seasonality effect on ant abundance and richness described in the literature in 47 papers published between 2000 and 2018. These studies were developed mainly in the Atlantic Forest biome and collected ants with pitfall traps on the soil/litter stratum. We initially carried out a vote-counting procedure by comparing the number of significant results describing seasonal differences in the ant assemblage. We found that most papers described a similar pattern of ant abundance, richness, and species composition between seasons. However, when we performed a meta-analysis, we observed a clear pattern of higher ant abundance and richness in the wet/summer season compared with the dry/winter season. Our meta-analysis reveals that the ant diversity decreases in the dry season, strongly in the Cerrado biome. Additionally, we point out differences in the sampling effort across biomes, indicating the need for further investments in studies focused on temporal diversity patterns, including seasonal effects, on the insect assemblage in biomes less investigated so far. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Assessment of the diversity of Paenibacillus species in environmental samples by a novel rpoB-based PCR-DGGE method

A specific PCR system based on the gene encoding the RNA polymerase beta subunit, rpoB, was developed for amplification and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) fingerprinting of Paenibacillus communities in environmental samples. This gene has been previously proven to be a powerful identification tool for the discrimination of species within the genus Paenibacillus and could avoid the limitations of 16S rRNA-based phylogenetic analysis. Initially, the PCR system based on universal rpoB primers were used to amplify DNAs of different Paenibacillus species. A new reverse primer (rpoBPAEN) was further designed based on an insertion of six nucleotides in the Paenibacillus sequences analyzed. This semi-nested PCR system was evaluated for specificity using DNAs isolated from 27 Paenibacillus species belonging to different 16S rRNA-based phylogenetic groups and seven non-Paenibacillus species. The non-Paenibacillus species were not amplified using this PCR approach and one group of Paenibacillus species consisting of strains without the six-base insert also were not amplified; these latter strains were found to be distinct based on 16S rRNA gene phylogeny. In addition, a clone library was generated from the rpoB fragments amplified from two Brazilian soil types (Cerrado and Forest) and all 62 clones sequenced were closely related to one of the 22 sequences from Paenibacillus previously obtained in this study. To assess the diversity of Paenibacillus species in Cerrado and Forest soils and in the rhizosphere of different cultivars of maize, a PCR-DGGE system was used. The Paenibacillus DGGE fingerprints showed a clear distinction between communities of Paenibacillus in Forest and Cerrado soils and rhizosphere samples clustered along Cerrado soil. Profiles of cultivars CMS22 and CMS36 clustered together, with only 53% of similarity to CMS11 and CMS04. The results presented here demonstrate the potential use of the rpoB-based Paenibacillus-specific PCR-DGGE method for studying the diversity of Paenibacillus populations in natural environments.     

Tropical rain forest conservation and the twin challenges of diversity and rarity

Data from a global network of large, permanent plots in lowland tropical forests demonstrate (1) that the phenomenon of tropical tree rarity is real and (2) that almost all the species diversity in such forests is due to rare species. Theoretical and empirically based reasoning suggests that many of these rare species are not as geographically widespread as previously thought. These findings suggest that successful strategies for conserving global tree diversity in lowland tropical forests must pay much more attention to the biogeography of rarity, as well as to the impact of climate change on the distribution and abundance of rare species. Because the biogeography of many tropical tree species is poorly known, a high priority should be given to documenting the distribution and abundance of rare tropical tree species, particularly in Amazonia, the largest remaining tropical forested region in the world.     

Geographic variation and systematic review of the lizard genus Vanzosaura (Squamata,Gymnophthalmidae), with the description of a new species

Vanzosaura rubricauda (Boulenger, 1902) is a small‐bodied gymnophthalmid lizard widespread in dry biomes of South America. Throughout its distribution, V. rubricauda populations experience contrasting environmental conditions, and a marked disjunction occurs in the central portion of the Cerrado biome. Previous studies indicate that V. rubricauda may be a species complex, and here we used mitochondrial DNA data and external morphology to test for population differentiation and its systematic implications for the genus. We found three geographically cohesive groups recovered as well resolved, and strongly supported mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haploclades that are differentiated with respect to morphometry, meristics, and colour pattern. In light of the observed differences, we propose a new taxonomic rearrangement of the genus, where we: (1) restrict V. rubricauda to Chaco and western Cerrado regions; (2) resurrect V anzosaura multiscutata (Amaral, 1933) comb. nov. for Caatinga populations; and (3) describe V anzosaura savanicola sp. nov. for the eastern Cerrado region of Brazil. The new species is diagnosed from its congeners by having longer limbs and tail, fewer smooth subcaudals, and genetic distances ranging from 5 to 13%. The new species, along with other recent discoveries, highlights the Jalapão‐Serra Geral region as one of the most important areas of endemism for Cerrado squamates. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London     

Phylogeny and evolution of the neotropical rodent genus Calomys: inferences from mitochondrial DNA sequence data

Field mice of the genus Calomys are small, mostly granivorous rodents common to several habitats in South America. To date, phylogenies for the genus have been proposed on the basis of morphological, chromosomal, and biochemical data, often with contradictory results due to incomplete species sampling or methodological shortcomings. In this paper, we propose relationships among 10 species of Calomys based on the complete cytochrome b gene sequence. Our analyses show that Calomys is constituted by two major clades, one mostly associated with mountain habitats with subsequent invasions to lowland habitats and another with species restricted to lowland habitats both north and south of the Amazon basin. The evolution of the genus was likely accompanied by a reduction of chromosome diploid numbers that occurred independently in each of the two evolutionary lineages. A "clock" calibrated on the split between Auliscomys and Loxodontomys suggests that the almost nonexistent fossil record for the genus greatly underestimates divergence times among its species.     

DEEP DIVERSIFICATION AND LONG‐TERM PERSISTENCE IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN ‘DRY DIAGONAL’: INTEGRATING CONTINENT‐WIDE PHYLOGEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION MODELING OF GECKOS

The relative influence of Neogene geomorphological events and Quaternary climatic changes as causal mechanisms on Neotropical diversification remains largely speculative, as most divergence timing inferences are based on a single locus and have limited taxonomic or geographic sampling. To investigate these influences, we use a multilocus (two mitochondrial and 11 nuclear genes) range‐wide sampling of Phyllopezus pollicaris, a gecko complex widely distributed across the poorly studied South American ‘dry diagonal’ biomes. Our approach couples traditional and model‐based phylogeography with geospatial methods, and demonstrates Miocene diversification and limited influence of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations on P. pollicaris. Phylogeographic structure and distribution models highlight that persistence across multiple isolated regions shaped the diversification of this species complex. Approximate Bayesian computation supports hypotheses of allopatric and ecological/sympatric speciation between lineages that largely coincide with genetic clusters associated with Chaco, Cerrado, and Caatinga, standing for complex diversification between the ‘dry diagonal’ biomes. We recover extremely high genetic diversity and suggest that eight well‐supported clades may be valid species, with direct implications for taxonomy and conservation assessments. These patterns exemplify how low‐vagility species complexes, characterized by strong genetic structure and pre‐Pleistocene divergence histories, represent ideal radiations to investigate broad biogeographic histories of associated biomes.     

Open vegetation formations (grasslands and savannahs) support a higher diversity of Cetoniidae (Insecta: Coleoptera) than forest formations in the brazilian Cerrado

Brazil has 22 genera and 75 species of Cetoniidae, with the Cerrado hosting the greatest diversity among Brazilian biomes. However, the diversity of groups among the different phytophysiognomies of the biome is not known. The objectives of this study are to assess Cetoniidae diversity and to verify the seasonality of these beetles in three Cerrado phytophysiognomies (gallery forest, cerrado sensu stricto, and campo sujo) located in three conservation units in Brasilia, Distrito Federal, Brazil. We collected adults monthly (October/2016 to September/2018) using 180 traps baited with bananas fermented with sugarcane juice, totaling 1,574 specimens, 8 genera, and 17 species. Cetoniidae diversity was higher in the phytophysiognomies with lower tree density (campo sujo and cerrado sensu stricto) than in gallery forests (forest formation), confirming our hypothesis that more open areas favor the dispersal of these insects due to their diurnal long-flying behavior. The seasonality of Cetoniidae was directly related to the precipitation, with higher numbers of individuals and species in the rainy season. However, the distribution varies among the phytophysiognomies, with aggregated distribution in campo sujo and gallery forest and dispersed in cerrado sensu stricto. Our results suggest that the Cetoniidae take advantage of the open Cerrado physiognomies to locate resources faster and with less energy expenditure, presenting higher diversity in these environments, despite the more ephemeral and dispersed food resources.

     

Vegetation structure determines insect herbivore diversity in seasonally dry tropical forests

Vegetation structure can often determine insect herbivore fauna in forests, but this mechanism has been demonstrated in seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTFs) only at small spatial scales. In this study we evaluated the effects of the geographical location of SDTFs and vegetation structure on insect herbivore communities (leaf-chewing and sap-sucking guilds) in three Brazilian ecoregions (Cerrado, Cerrado/Caatinga transition, and Caatinga). We tested the following predictions: (1) insect herbivore species composition, richness, abundance and beta diversity differ among forests in different ecoregions; (2) insect richness, abundance and beta diversity are positively related to tree richness and density; (3) spatial turnover of species is the primary mechanism that generates herbivorous insect β-diversity in different ecoregions, and is positively influenced by tree richness. The composition, richness, and abundance of herbivorous insects differed over SDFs along the gradient of Cerrado and Caatinga. Both herbivore guilds responded positively to tree richness. Tree density only determined the richness and abundance of sap-sucking herbivores. Insect β-diversity was similar among Cerrado and transition areas, but lower in Caatinga itself; β-diversity was also positively affected by tree richness. Species turnover, as opposed to nestedness, was the main mechanism generating β-diversity, but itself was not related to tree richness. We demonstrate in this study the importance of landscape diversity and availability of local resources for herbivorous insect communities, and we emphasize the importance of SDTF conservation in different ecoregions as a result of species turnover.     

Phenological variation within and among populations of Plathymenia reticulata in Brazilian Cerrado, the Atlantic Forest and transitional sites

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Plathymenia reticulata (Leguminosae) is a Brazilian tree that occurs in two biomes: Cerrado, a woody savanna vegetation, and the Atlantic Forest, a tropical forest. In this study, phenological patterns and their variability within and among populations located in these biomes and in transitional zones between them were assessed. METHODS: During a 15-month period, individuals from two populations in Cerrado, two in the Atlantic Forest, and six in transitional zones (three in a cerrado-like environment and three in forest fragments) were evaluated in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The individuals were evaluated monthly according to the proportion of the canopy in each vegetative phenophase (leaf fall, leaf flush and mature leaves) and each reproductive phenophase (floral buds, flowers, immature fruits and mature fruit/seed dispersal). In order to assess the phenological variability within and among populations, habitats and biomes, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, the Morisita-Horn similarity index and genetic population approach of partitioning diversity were used. KEY RESULTS: Populations of P. reticulata, in general, showed similar phenology; the main differences were related to leaf fall, a process that starts months earlier in the Cerrado than in transitional sites, and even later in forest areas. Considerable synchrony was observed for reproductive phenology among populations and between biomes. Most phenological diversity was due to differences among individuals within populations. CONCLUSION: In spite of environmental differences, P. reticulata from the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado showed similar phenological behavior with only about 10% of the total diversity being attributed to differences between biomes.     

Hummingbird diversity, food niche characters, and assemblage composition along a latitudinal precipitation gradient in the Bolivian lowlands

As for many other taxa, hummingbird diversity declines away from the equator, but the causes for this decline are still disputed and might involve, among others, climatic factors or the availability of food resources. Because hummingbirds are one of the classical examples for plant–animal coevolution, it has been proposed that the diversity of hummingbird assemblages might depend on the diversity of food plants available. We tested this hypothesis by studying the hummingbird assemblages and their food plants for 1 year at six sites along a 660-km-long transect in Bolivian lowland forests extending from the southernmost Amazonian rain forests to dry Chaco forests. Hummingbird diversity was higher in the northern three sites as compared to the southern ones, with an abrupt decline in species numbers and a corresponding change in taxonomic composition at the boundary from evergreen to drought deciduous forests. Hummingbird diversity and abundance were only weakly correlated to climatic factors or to the diversity of humming-visited flowers, but strongly to the seasonal abundance of flowers. The overlap in nectar diet between hummingbird species depended on the number of plant species: when numerous species were available, the hummingbirds segregated by feeding preferences, but when few flowers were available, all hummingbirds fed on the same plants. We conclude that the local diversity of hummingbird species is not primarily determined by the diversity of food plants, but rather by the abundance of flowers available at any given point in time.     

Fire affects the occurrence of small mammals at distinct spatial scales in a neotropical savanna

Fire is a major disturbance event that affects biomes worldwide, altering vegetation structure and flora and fauna assemblages. Here, we investigated the effects of an extensive wildfire (~?6240 ha) on small mammal assemblages in savanna woodland (cerradão) at two spatial scales (meso- and macrohabitat) in a neotropical savanna (Brazilian Cerrado). At each spatial scale, we assessed relationships between habitat structure and small mammal species composition and abundance before and after the fire in four natural patches (one burned, three unburned) using partial redundancy analysis. From July 2009 to October 2013, we captured 1319 individuals belonging to 14 species. Our results showed that the fire had consequences for small mammal assemblage at both scales. After the fire, the burned patch differed from the other patches in vegetation attributes and species composition. At a fine scale, fire increased the herbaceous layer and decreased the litter layer and understory obstruction. On a larger scale, the main consequences of fire on vegetation structure were increased variation in litter depth, tree diameter, and distance to the nearest tree. We observed a relationship between mesohabitat structure and the abundance of species with different habitat requirements during the post-fire succession. Fire favored the invasion of generalist species from open Cerrado habitats (rodents Calomys tener, Calomys expulsus, Cerradomys scotti, and Necromys lasiurus) at the expense of more specialized forest species. Our results reinforce the relevance of incorporating multi-scale habitat heterogeneity in future studies assessing the effects of fire on wildlife.     

High butterfly beta diversity between Brazilian cerrado and cerrado–caatinga transition zones

Tropical dry forests are among the most diverse and threatened habitats in the world, yet they are rarely protected and remain poorly studied. In Brazil, dry forests are naturally fragmented and embedded within various biomes, thus making it important to assess biotic homogeneity among geographically separated forest fragments. We sampled 7732 individuals belonging to 48 species to quantify the diversity of fruit-feeding butterfly communities at four Brazilian dry forest sites, and found differences in community structure between northern and central sites. Species richness per plot was the same in both areas, but abundance per plot was higher in northern sites. Species composition differed between sites mostly due to species of Satyrinae. Additive partitioning showed that beta diversity corresponded to 70.1% of all diversity. Rather than species loss, beta diversity primarily represented species turnover that was potentially driven by differences in the surrounding habitats. Butterfly community composition and abundance were influenced by vegetation where abundance increased with tree density and basal area, and decreased with the average tree height. Butterfly species richness and abundance were higher in the wet season than in the dry season, and all species sampled in the dry season were present in the wet season. Differences in community structure across relatively short geographic distances in the same type of habitat highlight the importance of conserving tropical dry forest fragments to ensure the maintenance of butterfly diversity and, presumably, other insects.     

Metarhizium species in soil from Brazilian biomes: a study of diversity,distribution, and association with natural and agricultural environments

Metarhizium is a diverse genus of fungi adapted for different ecologies, including soil saprotrophs, entomopathogens, and endophytes. We characterized the genetic diversity and distribution of Metarhizium species in soils found in native and agricultural landscapes within Brazilian biomes (Amazon, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, and Pampa). Current species limits were determined with 5′-TEF, and the genetic diversity discerned using MzIGS3 sequences. Metarhizium robertsii, Metarhizium anisopliae, Metarhizium pingshaense, and three other lineages that lie beyond currently recognized species were found. Only soils from the Amazon contained all the species. The diversity of Metarhizium species associated with native vegetation was greater than that identified in annual and perennial crops. M. robertsii was the most abundant species (65%), followed by Metarhizium sp. indet. 1, which exhibited the highest haplotype and nucleotide diversities. Metarhizium sp. indet. 3 was found predominantly in the Caatinga biome. This information increases the knowledge about diversity and belowground species composition of Metarhizium in Brazil.