Nanoparticle-encapsulated emodin decreases diabetic neuropathic pain probably via a mechanism involving P2X3 receptor in the dorsal root ganglia

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). More than 90% of all cases of DM belong to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Emodin is the main active component of Radix et rhizoma rhei and has anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. Nanoparticle encapsulation of drugs is beneficial for drug targeting and bioavailability as well as for lowering drug toxicity side effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nanoparticle-encapsulated emodin (nano emodin) on diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) mediated by the Purin 2X3 (P2X3) receptor in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) and thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) values in T2DM rats were lower than those of control rats. MWT and TWL in T2DM rats treated with nano emodin were higher compared with those in T2DM rats. Expression levels of P2X3 protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) in the DRG of T2DM rats were higher than those of controls, while levels in T2DM rats treated with nano emodin were significantly lower than those of the T2DM rats. Phosphorylation and activation of ERK1/2 in the T2DM DRG were decreased by nano emodin treatment. Nano emodin significantly inhibited currents activated by the P2X3 agonist α,β-meATP in HEK293 cells transfected with the P2X3 receptor. Therefore, nano emodin treatment may relieve DNP by decreasing excitatory transmission mediated by the DRG P2X3 receptor in T2DM rats.     

Quercetin relieved diabetic neuropathic pain by inhibiting upregulated P2X4 receptor in dorsal root ganglia

The upregulation of nociceptive ion channels expressed in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contributes to the development and retaining of diabetic pain symptoms. The flavonoid quercetin (3,3′,4′,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) is a component extracted from various fruits and vegetables and exerts anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticarcinogenic, antiulcer, and antihypertensive effects. However, the exact mechanism underlying quercetin's analgesic action remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of quercetin on diabetic neuropathic pain related to the P2X₄ receptor in the DRG of type 2 diabetic rat model. Our data showed that both mechanical withdrawal threshold and thermal withdrawal latency in diabetic rats treated with quercetin were higher compared with those in untreated diabetic rats. The expression levels of P2X₄ messenger RNA and protein in the DRG of diabetic rats were increased compared with the control rats, while quercetin treatment significantly inhibited such enhanced P2X₄ expression in diabetic rats. The satellite glial cells (SGCs) enwrap the neuronal soma in the DRG. Quercetin treatment also lowered the elevated coexpression of P2X₄ and glial fibrillary acidic protein (a marker of SGCs) and decreased the upregulation of phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) in the DRG of diabetic rats. Quercetin significantly reduced the P2X₄ agonist adenosine triphosphate-activated currents in HEK293 cells transfected with P2X₄ receptors. Thus, our data demonstrate that quercetin may decrease the upregulation of the P2X₄ receptor in DRG SGCs, and consequently inhibit P2X₄ receptor-mediated p38MAPK activation to relieve the mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia in diabetic rats.     

Vatalanib decrease the positive interaction of VEGF receptor-2 and P2X(2/3) receptor in chronic constriction injury rats

Neuropathic pain can arise from a lesion affecting the peripheral nervous system. Selective P2X(3) and P2X(2/3) receptors' antagonists effectively reduce neuropathic pain. VEGF inhibitors are effective for pain relief. The present study investigated the effects of Vatalanib (VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) inhibitor) on the neuropathic pain to address the interaction of VEGFR-2 and P2X(2/3) receptor in dorsal root ganglia of chronic constriction injury (CCI) rats. Neuropathic pain symptoms following CCI are similar to most peripheral lesions as assessed by the Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into sham group, CCI group and CCI rats treated with Vatalanib group. Mechanical withdrawal threshold and thermal withdrawal latency were measured. Co-expression of VEGFR-2 and P2X(2) or P2X(3) in L4-6 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) was detected by double-label immunofluorescence. The modulation effect of VEGF on P2X(2/3) receptor agonist-activated currents in freshly isolated DRG neurons of rats both of sham and CCI rats was recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp technique. The mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) and thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) in CCI group were lower than those in sham group (p<0.05). MWT and TWL in CCI rats treated with Vatalanib group were increased compared with those in CCI group (p<0.05). VEGFR-2 and P2X(2) or P2X(3) receptors were co-expressed in the cytoplasm and surface membranes of DRG. The co-expression of VEGFR-2 and P2X(2) or P2X(3) receptor in CCI group exhibited more intense staining than those in sham group and CCI rats treated with Vatalanib group, respectively. VEGF enhanced the amplitude of ATP and α,β-meATP -activated currents of both sham and CCI rats. Increment effects of VEGF on ATP and α,β-meATP -activated currents in CCI rats were higher than those in sham rats. Both ATP (100 μM) and α,β-meATP (10 μM)- activated currents enhanced by VEGF ( 1nM) were significantly blocked by Vatalanib (1 μM, an inhibitor of VEGF receptors). The stain values of VEGFR-2, P2X(2) and P2X(3) protein expression in L4/5 DRG of CCI treated with Vatalanib group were significantly decreased compared with those in CCI group (p<0.01). Vatalanib can alleviate chronic neuropathic pain by decreasing the activation of VEGF on VEGFR-2 and the positive interaction between the up-regulated VEGFR-2 and P2X(2/3) receptors in the neuropathic pain signaling.     

脊髓自噬功能激活与大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性疼痛的关系

目的：探讨脊髓自噬功能与大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性疼痛（DNP）的关系。方法：雄性SD大鼠（42只）高糖高脂饲养8周,腹腔单次注射链脲佐菌素（STZ）制备大鼠2型糖尿病模型。两周后检测机械缩足阈值（MWT）和热缩足潜伏期（TWL）,降至基础值80%以下者为2型糖尿病神经病理性疼痛大鼠,记为DNP组（24只）;未降至基础值80%以下者为2型糖尿病无神经病理性疼痛大鼠,记为DA组（18只）。另取18只大鼠为对照（control,C）组,普通饲料喂养。于确定DA与DNP分组后的第3、7和14天,测定机械缩足阈值（MWT）和热缩足潜伏期（TWL）,并在行为学检测结束后各组随机取6只大鼠处死,取L4~L6脊髓膨大,采用Western blot法检测自噬特异性蛋白微管相关蛋白1（Beclin-1）、微管相关蛋白1轻链3（LC3）和P62的表达。另取6只7 d DNP组大鼠采用免疫荧光双染法检测脊髓背角P62与小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞、神经元的共表达情况。结果：连续8周喂养高糖高脂饲料的SD大鼠的血浆胰岛素水平升高,胰岛素敏感指数下调,表明出现胰岛素抵抗;在腹腔注射STZ后,血糖升高达到2型糖尿病诊断标准（≥16.7 mmol/L）;与C组、DA组比较,DNP组大鼠在第3、7和14天时MWT降低,TWL缩短,并且脊髓背角LC3-Ⅱ、Beclin-1表达上调,P62表达下降（P<0.05）。免疫荧光双染色显示,P62在脊髓背角表达,主要与神经元共存,少量与小胶质细胞共存,几乎不与星形胶质细胞共表达。结论：2型糖尿病神经病理性疼痛大鼠脊髓LC3-Ⅱ、Beclin-1和P62表达的改变提示脊髓自噬功能激活;脊髓背角中神经元自噬激活在2型糖尿病大鼠DNP的发生和发展起着关键作用。     

RvD1对大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性痛的作用及机制研究

目的：采用2型糖尿病神经病理性痛大鼠,探讨其脊髓背角小胶质细胞极化情况以及消退素D1（RvD1）缓解大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性痛的机制。方法：雄性SD大鼠高糖高脂饲养,腹腔注射链脲佐菌素（STZ）,制备大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性痛模型。将2型糖尿病神经病理性痛大鼠随机分为3组（n=36）：2型糖尿病神经病理性痛组（D组）、2型糖尿病神经病理性痛注射RvD1组（R组）和溶剂对照组（S组）。R、S组分别于注射STZ 14 d后蛛网膜下腔置管,3 d后R、S组分别给予RvD1 10μl（10 ng/μl）和100%乙醇10μl,每天1次,连续14 d,D组不做任何处理。另取36只正常大鼠为正常对照组（N组）,普通饲料喂养。鞘内给药后第1、3、7、14天时测定机械缩足阈值（MWT）和热缩足潜伏期（TWL）,各组随机取9只大鼠处死,取L4-6脊髓膨大,采用Western blot法检测小胶质细胞M1、M2型极化标记物,即诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）、精氨酸酶1（Arg1）的表达。结果：与N组比较,D、S组第1、3、7、14天时MWT降低、TWL缩短,脊髓背角Arg1表达减少,iNOS表达增多（P < 0.05）;与D组比较,R组第7、14天时MWT升高、TWL延长,脊髓背角Arg1表达增多,iNOS表达减少（P < 0.05）;D组与S组各指标比较差异无统计学意义。结论：RvD1促进小胶质细胞M2型极化并缓解大鼠2型糖尿病神经病理性痛。     

Localisation of P2Y<Subscript>1</Subscript> and P2Y<Subscript>4</Subscript> receptors in dorsal root,nodose and trigeminal ganglia of the rat

The presence and distribution of P2Y (nucleotide) receptor subtypes in rat sensory neurons has been investigated. RT-PCR showed that P2Y₁, P2Y₂, P2Y₄ and P2Y₆ receptor mRNA is expressed in sensory ganglia [dorsal root ganglion (DRG), nodose ganglion (NG) and trigeminal ganglion (TG)]. The regional and cellular distribution of P2Y₁ and P2Y₄ receptor proteins in these ganglia was investigated using immunohistochemistry. P2Y₁ polyclonal antibodies stained over 80% of the sensory neurons, particularly the small-diameter (neurofilament-negative) neurons. The P2Y₄ receptor antibody stained more medium- and large- (neurofilament-positive) diameter neurons than small-diameter neurons. P2Y₁ and P2Y₄ receptor immunoreactivity (P2Y₁-IR and P2Y₄-IR) was often coexpressed with P2X₃ receptor immunoreactivity (P2X₃-IR) in subpopulations of neurons. Double immunohistochemistry showed that 73–84% of P2X₃ receptor-positive neurons also stained for the P2Y₁ receptor in DRG, TG and NG while only 25–35% also stained for the P2Y₄ receptor. Subpopulations of P2Y₁-IR neurons were coexpressed with NF200, CGRP and IB₄; most P2Y₄-IR neurons were coexpressed with NF200, while only a few neurons were coexpressed with CGRP (10–20%) or with IB₄ (1–2%). The results suggest that P2Y as well as P2X receptor subtypes contribute to purinergic signalling in sensory ganglia.     

P2X<Subscript>7</Subscript> receptor and klotho expressions in diabetic nephropathy progression

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to high levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the activation of purinergic receptors (P2X₇), which results in cell death. Klotho was recently described as a modulator of oxidative stress and as having anti-apoptotic properties, among others. However, the roles of P2X₇ and klotho in the progression of diabetic nephropathy are still unclear. In this context, the aim of the present study was to characterize P2X₇ and klotho in several stages of diabetes in rats. Diabetes was induced in Wistar rats by streptozotocin, while the control group rats received the drug vehicle. From the 1st to 8th weeks after the diabetes induction, the animals were placed in metabolic cages on the 1st day of each week for 24 h to analyze metabolic parameters and for the urine collection. Then, blood samples and the kidneys were collected for biochemical analysis, including Western blotting and qPCR for P2X₇ and klotho. Diabetic rats presented a progressive loss of renal function, with reduced nitric oxide and increased lipid peroxidation. The P2X₇ and klotho expressions were similar up to the 4th week; then, P2X₇ expression increased in diabetes mellitus (DM), but klotho expression presented an opposite behavior, until the 8th week. Our data show an inverse correlation between P2X₇ and klotho expressions through the development of DM, which suggests that the management of these molecules could be useful for controlling the progression of this disease and diabetic nephropathy.     

Estrogen altered visceromotor reflex and P2X3 mRNA expression in a rat model of colitis

P2X₃ and P2X_2/3 receptors are expressed in peripheral tissues and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and participate in peripheral pain. However, the mechanisms underlying P2X receptor-mediated nociception at different ovarial hormone levels has not been examined. In this study, 24 female rats were randomly divided into sham-operated (sham), ovariectomized (OVX), estrogen-treated, and estrogen–progesterone-treated groups with colitis. In each group, the visceromotor reflex (VMR) to colorectal distension was tested and the DRG were harvested for a real-time PCR analysis of P2X₃ and P2X₂ receptor mRNA. In OVX rats with colitis we found that the VMR to colorectal distension and P2X₃ receptor mRNA in DRG were both significantly decreased. Estrogen replacement reversed the decrease. However, neither the VMR nor the P2X₃ mRNA level in DRG from OVX colitis rats was reversed by the complex of estrogen and progesterone. Patch-clamp recording showed that in colitis rats, estradiol rapidly potentiated the sustained and transient currents evoked by ATP to 336 ± 49% and 122 ± 12% of controls, respectively, in a subpopulation of DRG neurons, which were blocked by ICI 182, 780, an antagonist of the estrogen receptor. Whereas progesterone rapidly inhibited the transient currents induced by ATP to 67 ± 10% of control and had no effect on the sustained currents evoked by the same agonist. These results indicate that P2X₃ receptors are likely to be an important contributor to the altered colonic functions in colitis rats, where the underlying mechanisms are closely related to endogenous estrogen modulation.     

P2X<Subscript>2</Subscript> and P2X<Subscript>3</Subscript> purinoceptors in the rat enteric nervous system

Adenosine 5-triphosphate receptors are known to be involved in fast excitatory postsynaptic currents in myenteric neurons of the digestive tract. In the present study, the distribution of P2X₂ and P2X₃ receptor mRNA was examined by in situ hybridisation while P2X₂ and P2X₃ receptor protein was localised by immunohistochemical methods. In addition, P2X₂ and P2X₃ receptors were colocalised with calbindin and calretinin in the myenteric and submucosal plexus. P2X₂- and P2X₃-immunoreactive neurons were found in the myenteric and submucosal plexuses throughout the entire length of the rat digestive tract from the stomach to the colon. Approximately 60%, 70% and 50% of the ganglion cells in the myenteric plexus of the gastric corpus, ileum and distal colon, and 56% and 45% in the submucosal plexus of the ileum and distal colon, respectively, showed positive immunoreactivity to the P2X₂ receptor. Approximately 10%, 2% and 15% of the ganglion cells in the myenteric plexus of the gastric corpus, ileum and distal colon, and 62% and 40% in the submucosal plexus of the ileum and distal colon, respectively, showed positive immunoreactivity to the P2X₃ receptor. Double-labelling studies showed that about 10–25% of the neurons with P2X₂ immunoreactivity in myenteric plexus and 30–50% in the submucosal plexus were found to express calbindin or calretinin. About 80% of the neurons with P2X₃ receptor immunoreactivity in the myenteric plexus and about 40% in the submucosal plexus expressed calretinin. Approximately 30–75% of the neurons with P2X₃ receptor immunoreactivity in the submucosal plexus expressed calbindin, while none of them were found to express calbindin in the myenteric plexus.     

Electrophysiological studies of upregulated P2X7 receptors in rat superior cervical ganglia after myocardial ischemic injury

Myocardial ischemic injury activates cardiac sympathetic afferent fibers and elicits a sympathoexcitatory reflex by exciting sympathetic efferent action, with resultant augmentation of myocardial oxygen consumption, leading to a vicious cycle of exaggerating myocardial ischemia. P2X₇ receptor participates in the neuronal functions and the neurological disorders. This study examined the role of P2X₇ receptor of superior cervical ganglia (SCG) in sympathoexcitatory reflex. Our results showed that the expression of P2X₇ receptor at both mRNA and protein in SCG was increased after myocardial ischemic injury. P2X₇ receptor agonists at the same concentration activated much larger amplitudes of the currents in the SCG neurons of myocardial ischemic rats than those in control rats. P2X₇ receptor antagonist (brilliant blue G, BBG) significantly inhibited P2X₇ receptor agonist-activated currents in the SCG neurons. Excessive phosphorylation of MAPK ERK1/2 upon the activation of P2X₇ receptor might be a mechanism mediating the signal transduction after myocardial ischemic injury. Therefore, the sensitized P2X₇ receptor in SCG was involved in the nociceptive transmission of sympathoexcitatory reflex induced by myocardial ischemic injury.     

Sensory–sympathetic coupling in superior cervical ganglia after myocardial ischemic injury facilitates sympathoexcitatory action via P2X7 receptor

P2X receptors participate in cardiovascular regulation and disease. After myocardial ischemic injury, sensory–sympathetic coupling between rat cervical DRG nerves and superior cervical ganglia (SCG) facilitated sympathoexcitatory action via P2X₇ receptor. The results showed that after myocardial ischemic injury, the systolic blood pressure, heart rate, serum cardiac enzymes, IL-6, and TNF-α were increased, while the levels of P2X₇ mRNA and protein in SCG were also upregulated. However, these alterations diminished after treatment of myocardial ischemic (MI) rats with the P2X₇ antagonist oxATP. After siRNA P2X₇ in MI rats, the systolic blood pressure, heart rate, serum cardiac enzymes, the expression levels of the satellite glial cell (SGC) or P2X₇ were significantly lower than those in MI group. The phosphorylation of ERK 1/2 in SCG participated in the molecular mechanism of the sympathoexcitatory action induced by the myocardial ischemic injury. Retrograde tracing test revealed the sprouting of CGRP or SP sensory nerves (the markers of sensory afferent fibers) from DRG to SCG neurons. The upregulated P2X₇ receptor promoted the activation of SGCs in SCG, resulting in the formation of sensory–sympathetic coupling which facilitated the sympathoexcitatory action. P2X₇ antagonist oxATP could inhibit the activation of SGCs and interrupt the formation of sensory–sympathetic coupling in SCG after the myocardial ischemic injury. Our findings may benefit the treatment of coronary heart disease and other cardiovascular diseases.     

姜黄素对糖尿病大鼠疼痛过敏的影响

目的：神经病理性痛是糖尿病最常见的并发症之一,本课题旨在探讨姜黄素对糖尿病大鼠痛觉过敏的影响及其分子机制。方法：30只雄性SD大鼠随机分为对照组、糖尿病组和姜黄素治疗纽,模型纽和姜黄素治疗组利用腹腔注射链脲佐菌素（Streptozotocin,STZ）制备大鼠糖尿病模型,定期检测大鼠血糖、饮食、体重等变化,治疗组于STZ注射2wk后定期灌服姜黄素,分别在2wk和4wk后检测各组大鼠热痛敏和机械痛敏反应,在第4wk利用ELISA分别检测各组大鼠脊髓背角TNF-α表达变化。结果：STZ注射组大鼠2周后出现血糖〉14mol／L,并且该模型具有高血糖、体重增长缓慢、多饮多食多尿的特点,符合Ⅰ型糖尿病特征,痛行为测试结果显示糖尿病大鼠出现痛觉过敏,经过给予姜黄素灌服治疗后,痛觉过敏有所减轻,ELISA分析结果表明糖尿病大鼠脊髓背角TNF-α表达升高,经过姜黄素治疗后TNF-α表达有所下降。结论：成功制备STZ-型糖尿病大鼠模型,经过姜黄素治疗可以减轻糖尿病引起的疼痛过敏,姜黄素对糖尿病疼痛的治疗作用可能是通过降低大鼠脊髓背角TNF-α表达实现的。     

Analgesic effect of electroacupuncture on chronic neuropathic pain mediated by P2X3 receptors in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons

Adenosine 5'-triphosphate disodium (ATP) gated P2X receptors, especially the subtype P2X(3), play a key role in transmission of pain signals in neuropathic pain, ATP has been documented to play a significant role in the progression of pain signals, suggesting that control of these pathways through electroacupuncture (EA) is potentially an effective treatment for chronic neuropathic pain. EA has been accepted to effectively manage chronic pain by applying the stimulating current to acupoints through acupuncture needles. To determine the significance of EA on neuropathic pain mediated by P2X(3) receptors in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) and thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) were recorded, and the expression of P2X(3) receptors in the DRG neurons was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH). In addition, the currents which were evoked in DRG neurons isolated from rats following chronic constriction injury (CCI) by the P2X(3) receptors agonists i.e. ATP and α,β-methylen-ATP (α,β-meATP) were examined through the experimental use of whole cell patch clamp recording. The present study demonstrates that EA treatment can increase the MWT and TWL values and decrease the expression of P2X(3) receptors in DRG neurons in CCI rats. Simultaneously, EA treatment attenuates the ATP and α,β-meATP evoked currents. EA may be expected to induce an apparent induce analgesic effect by decreasing expression and inhibiting P2X(3) receptors in DRG neurons of CCI rats. There is a similar effect on analgesic effect between rats with contralateral EA and those with ipsilateral EA.     

LncRNA NONRATT021972 involved the pathophysiologic processes mediated by P2X<Subscript>7</Subscript> receptors in stellate ganglia after myocardial ischemic injury

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts on P2X receptors to initiate signal transmission. P2X₇ receptors play a role in the pathophysiological process of myocardial ischemic injury. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) participate in numerous biological functions independent of protein translation. LncRNAs are implicated in nervous system diseases. This study investigated the effects of NONRATT021972 small interference RNA (siRNA) on the pathophysiologic processes mediated by P2X₇ receptors in stellate ganglia (SG) after myocardial ischemic injury. Our results demonstrated that the expression of NONRATT021972 in SG was significantly higher in the myocardial ischemic (MI) group than in the control group. Treatment of MI rats with NONRATT021972 siRNA, the P2X₇ antagonist brilliant blue G (BBG), or P2X₇ siRNA improved the histology of injured ischemic cardiac tissues and decreased the elevated concentrations of serum myocardial enzymes, creatine kinase (CK), CK isoform MB (CK-MB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) compared to the MI rats. NONRATT021972 siRNA, BBG, or P2X₇ siRNA treatment in MI rats decreased the expression levels of P2X₇ immunoreactivity, P2X₇ messenger RNA (mRNA), and P2X₇ protein, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) in the SG compared to MI rats. NONRATT021972 siRNA treatment prevented the pathophysiologic processes mediated by P2X₇ receptors in the SG after myocardial ischemic injury.     

The distribution of P2X<Subscript>5</Subscript> purinergic receptors in the enteric nervous system of mouse

The distribution of the P2X₅ purinoceptor in the enteric nervous system of the mouse was studied by immunohistochemistry. P2X₅ receptor immunoreactivity was widely distributed in myenteric and submucosal plexuses throughout the gastrointestinal tract. In myenteric plexuses, immunoreactivity for the P2X₅ receptor was observed in nerve fibres that enveloped ganglion cell bodies, and possibly on glial cell processes. P2X₅ receptor immunoreactivity was colocalised with vasoactive intestinal peptide and surrounded ganglion cells that contained calretinin, calbindin or nitric oxide synthase. In the submucous plexus, P2X₅ receptor immunoreactivity occurred throughout the cytoplasm and on the surface membranes of the nerve cells. Double-labelling studies showed that 22%, 9%, 6% and 68% of P2X₅ receptor-immunoreactive neurones were also immunoreactive for calretinin, calbindin, nitric oxide synthase and vasoactive intestinal peptide, respectively. Thus, the P2X₅ receptor subunit is expressed in specific functional groups of neurones. P2X₂ and P2X₃ receptors were also present in the mouse enteric plexuses but no immunoreactivity for P2X₁, P2X₄ or P2X₆ receptors was found.     

Electroacupuncture alleviates diabetic neuropathic pain in rats by suppressing P2X3 receptor expression in dorsal root ganglia

Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a troublesome diabetes complication all over the world. P2X3 receptor (P2X3R), a purinergic receptor from dorsal root ganglion (DRG), has important roles in neuropathic pain pathology and nociceptive sensations. Here, we investigated the involvement of DRG P2X3R and the effect of 2 Hz electroacupuncture (EA) on DNP. We monitored the rats’ body weight, fasting blood glucose level, paw withdrawal thresholds, and paw withdrawal latency, and evaluated P2X3R expression in DRG. We found that P2X3R expression is upregulated on DNP, while 2 Hz EA is analgesic against DNP and suppresses P2X3R expression in DRG. To evaluate P2X3R involvement in pain modulation, we then treated the animals with A317491, a P2X3R specific antagonist, or α β-me ATP, a P2X3R agonist. We found that A317491 alleviates hyperalgesia, while α β-me ATP blocks EA’s analgesic effects. Our findings indicated that 2 Hz EA alleviates DNP, possibly by suppressing P2X3R upregulation in DRG.

     

Expression of P2X5 receptors in the rat, cat, mouse and guinea pig dorsal root ganglion

P2X receptors are ATP-gated cationic channels composed of seven cloned subunits (P2X_{1 –7}). P2X₃ homomultimer and P2X_2/3 heteromultimer receptors expressed by primary afferent dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons are involved in pain processing. The aim of the study was to investigate the expression of the P2X₅ receptor subunit in DRG in different species including mouse, rat, cat and guinea pig. Immunohistochemistry showed that P2X₅ receptors exhibited low levels of immunostaining in rat DRG, but high levels in mouse and guinea pig. Only a few neurons were immunoreactive for P2X₅ receptors in cat. In mouse DRG, the P2X₅ receptor was expressed largely by medium-diameter neurons (42.9 %), less in small (29.3 %) and large (27.8 %) neurons. In contrast, in the guinea pig DRG, P2X₅ receptor expression was greatest in small-diameter (42.6 %), less in medium- (36.3 %) and large-diameter (21.1 %) neurons. Colocalization experiments revealed that, in mouse DRG, 65.5, 10.9 and 27.1 % of P2X₅ receptors were immunoreactive for NF-200, CGRP and calbindin, while only a few P2X₅-immunoreactive (IR) neurons were coexpressed with IB4 or with NOS. In guinea pig DRG, a total of 60.5 and 40.5 % of P2X₅-IR neurons were coexpressed with IB4 or with CGRP, while 20.3 and 24.5 % of P2X₅ receptors were coexpressed with NF-200 or with NOS. Only a few P2X₅-IR neurons were coexpressed with calbindin in guinea pig DRG. It will be of great interest to clarify the relative physiological and pathophysiological roles of P2X₅ receptors.     

沉默信息调节因子2在瑞芬太尼诱发的大鼠切口痛觉过敏中的作用及其机制研究

摘要 目的：探讨沉默信息调节因子2（Sirt2）在瑞芬太尼诱发的大鼠切口痛觉过敏中的作用及其机制。方法：18只SD大鼠采用随机数字表法分为I组（切口组,n=6）,RI组（瑞芬太尼+切口组,n=6）和RI+Sirt2过表达组（瑞芬太尼+切口+Sirt2过表达组,n=6）。I组在大鼠足底制作切口痛模型的同时在腹部注射等容量生理盐水30 min,RI组和RI+Sirt2过表达组在足底进行切口痛模型制作的同时并泵注瑞芬太尼30 min,RI+Sirt2过表达组在脊髓水平提前1周注射Sirt2过表达慢病毒处理。各组大鼠分别于泵注瑞芬太尼或生理盐水术前24 h,泵注结束后2 h、6 h、24 h和48 h测定机械刺激缩足反应阈值（MWT）及热缩足潜伏期（TWL）。行为学测试结束后处死大鼠,取L_3-5脊髓节段,采用蛋白免疫印迹（Western blot）法检测Sirt2表达,超氧化物歧化酶2（SOD2）活性采用酶联免疫吸附法（ELISA）法测定,超氧阴离子水平和NADPH氧化酶活性采用化学发光法测定。结果：各组大鼠MWT和TWL的时间效应（F=683.602,624.033,均P<0.001）和组别×时间交互效应显著（F=9.142,4.550,均P<0.001）,说明MWT和TWL有随时间变化的趋势并且时间因素的作用有随组别的不同而不同,组间比较差异有统计学意义（F=93.157,25.176,均P<0.001）。与I组比较,RI组T_1-4时MWT降低,TWL缩短（P<0.05）;RI+Sirt2过表达组T₂、T₄时间点MWT降低,T_2-4时间点TWL缩短（P<0.05）。与RI组比较,RI+Sirt2过表达组T_3-4时间点MWT升高,T_2-4时间点TWL延长（P<0.05）。三组大鼠Sirt2蛋白表达比较差异有统计学意义（F=265.643,P<0.001）;与I组比较,RI组和RI+Sirt2过表达组术后48 h脊髓组织Sirt2表达水平减少（P<0.05）;与RI组比较,RI+Sirt2过表达组术后48 h脊髓组织Sirt2表达水平增加（P<0.05）。三组大鼠脊髓组织SOD2活性、NADPH氧化酶活性、超氧化物阴离子表达比较差异有统计学意义（F=13.543,14.813,19.675,均P<0.001）;与I组比较,RI组和RI+Sirt2过表达组术后48 h脊髓组织SOD2活性水平降低,NADPH氧化酶活性和超氧化物阴离子水平增加（P<0.05）;与RI组比较,RI+Sirt2过表达组术后48 h脊髓组织SOD2活性水平增加,NADPH氧化酶活性和超氧化物阴离子减低（P<0.05）。结论：Sirt2通过调节氧化应激水平参与瑞芬太尼诱发切口痛大鼠痛觉过敏过程。