Sequential Pathology of Experimental Aflatoxicosis in Quail and the Effect of Selenium Supplementation in Modifying the Disease Process

Feeding of aflatoxin B1 @ 1 ppm to 2-week old Japanese quail for a period of 8 weeks produced gross and microscopic changes in the liver, skeletal muscles, heart and bursa of Fabricius. These included fatty changes, bile duct hyperplasia and lymphoid aggregation in liver; haemorrhages in thigh, breast muscles and myocardium; mild depletion of lymphocytes, cystic degeneration and fibrous tissue proliferation in bursa of Fabricius. More or less similar lesions were seen in quail chicks fed on aflatoxin with sodium selenite @ 5 ppm but these were of lesser intensity and appeared at later stages of the experiment thereby indicating that supplementation of selenium had some protective action against the toxic effect of aflatoxin B1 in Japanese quail.     

Safety assessment of BT 176 Maize in broiler nutrition: Degradation of Maize-DNA and its metabolic fate

Insect resistant Bt 176 maize has been developed by genetic modification to resist European borer infection. In the present investigation, the experiment was conducted to determine the effect of feeding a new hybrid of Bt 176 maize (NX 6262 - Bt 176) on general health condition and performance of broiler chickens. Maize grains and diets were subjected to proximate analysis. Amino and fatty acids investigation were applied for both maize grains before used. To evaluate the degradation of NX 6262 - Bt 176 maize DNA and its metabolic fate in broiler blood, muscles and organs. One-day-old male broilers were fed ad libitum on either an experimental diet containing NX 6262 - Bt 176 or a control diet containing the non-modified maize grains for 35 days. Feed consumption and body weight were recorded weekly during the experimental period. All chickens were subjected to nutritional evaluation period at day 20 of age for 5 successive days, to calculate the percentage of apparent digestible nutrients in both diets. At day 35 samples were collected at several intervals after feed withdrawal. Prior to slaughter blood samples were collected from all birds by heart puncture to prevent DNA cross contamination. Samples from pectoral and thigh muscles, liver, spleen, kidney, heart muscle, bursa and thymus glands were collected. Digesta from different sections of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were collected as well. Packed cell volume (PCV) and some serum parameters were investigated. There were no significant differences between control and experimental group concerning chemical composition of feeds, apparent digestible nutrients, and all performance parameters measured (P > 0.05). Furthermore, there were no differences in the PCV and the analysed serum parameters between the control and experimental group. The results of maize DNA digestibility showed that the new variety takes the normal physiological passage along broiler GIT similar to the conventional line. In addition, Bt 176 maize DNA appears to be partially degraded in different parts of GIT comparable to the DNA of the control maize line. Results of the metabolic fate of maize DNA in broiler blood, muscles and organs indicated that only short DNA fragments (199 bp) derived from the plant chloroplast gene could be detected in the blood, skeletal muscles, liver, spleen and kidney, which disappeared after prolongation the fasting time. In heart muscle, bursa of Fabricius and thymus, no plant chloroplast DNA was found. Bt gene specific constructs from Bt 176 maize were not detected in any investigated blood or tissue samples.     

Comparative pathologic changes in broiler chicks on feed amendedwith Fusarium proliferatum culture material or purified fumonisinB1 and moniliformin*

Feed amended with autoclaved culture material (CM) of Fusarium proliferatum containing fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) (61–546 ppm), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) (14–98 ppm) and moniliformin (66–367 ppm) was given to 228 male chicks in three separate feeding trials. In a fourth feeding trial, purified FB₁ (125 and 274 ppm) and moniliformin (27 and 154 ppm) were given separately and in combination (137 and 77 ppm, respectively). Chicks that died during the trial periods, survivors and controls were subjected to postmortem examination. Specimens (liver, kidney, pancreas, lung, brain, intestine, testis, bursa of Fabricius, heart and skeletal muscle) were examined grossly and preserved for subsequent histopathologic and ultrastructural examination. Prominent gross lesions in affected birds fed diets amended with CM or purified FB₁ and moniliformin included ascites, hydropericardium, hepatopathy, nephropathy, cardiomyopathy, pneumonitis, gizzard ulceration, and enlarged bursa of Fabricius filled with caseous material. The various concentrations of FB₁ and moniliformin in the amended rations produced well-defined dose–response lesions in all groups in all four trials. Histopathologic changes included hemorrhage, leucocytic infiltration, fatty change or infiltration, individual cell necrosis and fibrosis in liver, kidneys, lungs, heart, intestines, gizzard, bursa of Fabricius and pancreas. Edema and hemorrhage were prominent in brains of treated birds. Ultrastructural changes included cytoplasmic and nuclear enlargement of cells in affected liver, lungs, kidneys, heart and pancreas. There were thickened membranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, dilation of the rough endoplasmic reticulum with loss of ribosomes and vacuolated or deformed mitochondria. Disclaimer: The mention of firm names or trade products in this article does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture over other firms or similar products not mentioned.     

A redescription of the life cycle of Eimeria mitis Tyzzer, 1929

Ten-day-old broiler chickens were inoculated with oocysts of a characterized strain of Eimeria mitis, and tissues were fixed at 4, 8, or 24-h intervals after inoculation for histopathological examination. Tissue collections were initiated at the time of inoculation and extended up to 168 h postinoculation. The preferred site of development of E. mitis was found to be the ileum although more limited development of the parasite also took in the jejunum, cecal pouches, cloaca, and bursa of Fabricius. No distinctive and consistent intestinal lesions were macroscopically evident even in heavily parasitized chickens. The prepatent period was approximately 92 h postinoculation. The histopathological features of the E. mitis infections were characterized using conventional bright-field microscopy as well as both scanning and transmission electron microscopy. No extra-intestinal development of the parasite was observed.     

Pathological changes in chickens inoculated with reticuloendotheliosis-virus-contaminated Marek's disease vaccine.

A disease characterized by delayed growth, anemia, abnormal feathers, and leg paralysis occurred among chickens inoculated with Marek's disease vaccine over a period from spring to fall in 1974. These chickens were recognized among flocks inoculated with the vaccine produced by two vaccine makers. The affected ones were examined pathologically. Gross examination revealed a slight enlargement of peripheral nerves and atrophy of the spleen, thymus, and bursa of Fabricius. Histopathologically, the peripheral nerves had a mild cell infiltration of lymphoid and plasma cells, edema, degeneration of nerve fibers with Schwann's cell proliferation. Perivascular cuffings consisting mainly of lymphoid cells were seen in the brain and spinal cord. Atrophic changes displayed by prominent reduction of lymphocytes were recognized in the spleen, thymus, and bursa of Fabricius. Etiological examination suggested that most of the chickens examined might have been infected with reticuloendotheliosis virus and not with Marek's disease virus. The pathological changes observed in the peripheral nerves and central nervous system, however, were not distinguishable from those of Marek's disease.     

A Redescription of the Life Cycle of Eimeria mitis Tyzzer, 1929

Ten-day-old broiler chickens were inoculated with oocysts of a characterized strain of Eimeria mitis , and tissues were fixed at 4, 8, or 24-h intervals after inoculation for histopathological examination. Tissue collections were initiated at the time of inoculation and extended up to 168 h postinoculation. The preferred site of development of E. mitis was found to be the ileum although more limited development of the parasite also took in the jejunum, cecal pouches, cloaca, and bursa of Fabricius. No distinctive and consistent intestinal lesions were macroscopically evident even in heavily parasitized chickens. The prepatent period was approximately 92 h postinoculation. The histopathological features of the E. mitis infections were characterized using conventional bright-field microscopy as well as both scanning and transmission electron microscopy. No extra-intestinal development of the parasite was observed.     

The effect of polypeptides from the thymus, bone marrow and bursa of Fabricius on the immunogenesis and hemostasis in neonatally thymectomized and antenatally bursectomized chickens

The effect of polypeptides from the thymus, bone marrow and bursa of Fabricius on immunogenesis and hemostasis was investigated in neonatally thymectomized and antenatally bursectomized chickens. It has been established that polypeptide factors from the bursa of Fabricius have the most pronounced effect on the immunity and hemostasis.     

The influence of chlortetracycline on the immunological reactivity of chickens

Morphological examination of spleen and bursa of Fabricius of chickens fed on a diet without or with the addition of chlortetracycline (50, 100 and 200 CTC mg/kg) has shown that both low and high doses of antibiotic in the diet do not influence significantly the structure and reactivity of the lymphatic tissue following the antigenic stimulation. Certain differences were found in the number of lymphatic follicles in the spleen between control and experimental animals which received the highest dose 200 mg CTC/kg but even the greatest differences found on the fifth day after vaccination were not significant (P<0.1). On the other hand, the study of the level of agglutinin titres in the blood of control and experimental broilers has shown that the doses 100 and 200 mg CTC/kg in the diet have significantly influenced their production. After such doses the latent period was slightly lenghtened and both the highest and the average titres were lowered during the whole postvaccinal period to a degree which correlated the magnitude of dosage of the antibiotic.     

Effect of dietary supplementation of grape seed extract on the growth performance,lipid profile,antioxidant status and immune response of broiler chickens

Grape seed extracts (GSE) contain several beneficial bioactive constituents; therefore, can be utilized as a potential feed additive in broiler chickens. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of supplementation of broiler chicken diets with GSE as a natural antioxidant at levels of 125, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm on the growth performance, serum lipid profile, liver glutathione-reduced, thigh muscle malondialdehyde and humoral immune response against Newcastle disease virus vaccines. This experiment was performed during the life-span of chickens from 0 to 42 days of age. The results of broilers fed on diet supplemented by GSE were compared with those fed on the basal diet (control) or the basal diet supplemented by butylated hydroxytoluene as a synthetic antioxidant (BHT, 125 ppm). No significant differences were observed in the growth performance, percent livability, total lipid, high and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterols when the use of GSE or BHT were compared with the control. Total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly decreased after intake of GSE compared with BHT in the feed diet. The glutathione-reduced level in liver tissues was significantly increased by inclusion of GSE, but not by BHT. Inclusion of GSE or BHT decreased significantly the malondialdehyde level found in meat tissue. The antibody titer against Newcastle disease virus vaccines was significantly elevated in 28 and 35-day-old broiler chickens fed with a diet supplemented with GSE or BHT, the former providing a higher response. It can be concluded that GSE can be used as an effective natural antioxidant and immunostimulant agent in broiler chicken diets, and that 125 to 250 ppm can be considered as the optimum dosage.     

Selenium Deficiency Induces Autophagy in Immune Organs of Chickens

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of selenium (Se) deficiency on autophagy-related genes and on ultrastructural changes in the spleen, bursa of Fabricius, and thymus of chickens. The Se deficiency group was fed a basal diet containing Se at 0.033 mg/kg and the control group was fed the same basal diet containing Se at 0.15 mg/kg. The messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of the autophagy genes microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-I, LC3-II, Beclin 1, dynein, autophagy associated gene 5 (ATG5), and target of rapamycin complex 1 (TORC1) were assessed using real-time qPCR. The protein levels of LC3-II, Beclin 1, and dynein were investigated using western blot analysis. Furthermore, the ultrastructure was observed using an electron microscope. The results indicated that spleen mRNA levels of LC3-I, LC3-II, Beclin 1, dynein, ATG5, and TORC1 and the protein levels of LC3-II, Beclin 1, and dynein were increased in the Se deficiency group compared with the control group. In the bursa of Fabricius, the mRNA levels of LC3-I, LC3-II, Beclin 1, dynein, ATG5, and TORC1 and the protein levels of Beclin 1 and dynein were increased; furthermore, the protein level of LC3-II was decreased in the Se deficiency group compared to the control group. In the thymus, the mRNA levels of LC3-I, Beclin 1, and ATG5 increased; the levels of LC3-II, dynein, and TORC1 were decreased; the protein level of Beclin 1 increased; and the levels of LC3-II and dynein decreased in the Se deficiency group compared to those in the control group. Further cellular morphological changes, such as autophagy vacuoles, autolysosomes, and lysosomal degradation, were observed in the spleen, bursa of Fabricius, and thymus of the Se-deficiency group. In summary, Se deficiency caused changes in autophagy-related genes, which increased the autophagic process and also caused structural damages to the immune organs of chickens.     

Effects of Dietary Selenium on Selenoprotein W Gene Expression in the Chicken Immune Organs

Selenoprotein W (SelW) is expressed in the immune systems of mammals. However, its pattern of expression in the immune organs of birds is still unclear. To investigate the distribution of SelW and effects of dietary Se levels on the SelW mRNA expression in the immune organs of birds, 1-day-old male chickens were fed either a commercial diet or an Se-supplemented diet containing 0.601, 1.058, 1.514, or 2.427?mg Se per kilogram, and 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 or 5.0?mg sodium selenite per kilogram for 90?days. The immune organs (spleen, thymus, and bursa of Fabricius) were collected and examined for Se content and SelW mRNA levels. The mRNA expression of SelW was detected in all the tissues. Although Se content was the highest in the spleen, the remarkable stability of the SelW mRNA level was observed in this organ during different times of dietary Se supplementation. Se-supplemented diet can make the SelW expression levels higher within a certain range in thymus and bursa of Fabricius. The present study demonstrates that SelW is widely expressed in immune organs of birds and that Se-supplementation of the feed increases SelW expression in the thymus and the bursa of Fabricius.     

Black soldier fly larva fat inclusion in finisher broiler chicken diet as an alternative fat source

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of partial or total replacement of finisher diet soybean oil with black soldier fly (Hermethia illucens L.; HI) larva fat on the growth performance, carcass traits, blood parameters, intestinal morphology and histological features of broiler chickens. At 21 days of age, a total of 120 male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly allocated to three experimental groups (five replicates and eight birds/pen). To a basal control diet (C; 68.7 g/kg as fed of soybean oil), either 50% or 100% of the soybean oil was replaced with HI larva fat (HI50 and HI100 group, respectively). Growth performance was evaluated throughout the trial. At day 48, 15 birds (three birds/pen) per group were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir. Carcass yield and proportions of carcass elements were recorded. Blood samples were taken from each slaughtered chicken for haematochemical index determination. Morphometric analyses were performed on the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Samples of liver, spleen, thymus, bursa of fabricius, kidney and heart were submitted to histological investigations. Growth performance, carcass traits, haematochemical parameters and gut morphometric indexes were not influenced by the dietary inclusion of HI larva fat. Histopathological alterations developed in the spleen, thymus, bursa of fabricius and liver and were identified in all of the experimental groups, but HI larva fat inclusion did not significantly affect (P>0.05) the severity of the histopathological findings. The present study suggests that 50% or 100% replacement of soybean oil with HI larva fat in broiler chickens diets has no adverse effects on growth performance or blood parameters and had no beneficial effect on gut health.     

The biological effects of polybrominated biphenyls in avian species.

Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), structurally similar to polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), affects feed intake, egg production, and hatchability of fertile eggs in chickens and quail. Subcutaneous edema of the neck and shoulder are common abnormalities of hatched chicks from PBB-fed dams. No characteristic teratogenicity is evident. Offspring hatched are less viable during their first 3 weeks of life. PBB does not produce thinner egg shells or lower egg weights. The ratio of PBB egg content to dietary level is 1.3-1.5:1.0. The biological half-life of PBB in eggs is calculated to be 17 days. Tissue residues are higher in males than females because egg production is a major excretory route for PBB. Polybrominated biphenyl feeding causes tissue changes in size, structure and/or function in the liver, thyroid, testes, comb, heart, spleen, bursa of Fabricus, and blood. Liver enlargement, porphyria and microsomal enzyme induction results from PBB administration. The spleen, bursa and comb are reduced in size, whereas the thyroid increases after PBB feeding. A characteristic of PBB and PCB toxicity is hydropericardium and general edema.     

Sex steroid and glucocorticoid receptors in the bursa of Fabricius of obese strain chickens spontaneously developing autoimmune thyroiditis

The female sex develops autoimmune disease far more often than the male. This is claimed to be due to differences in peripheral sex steroid levels. We have examined in the bursa of Fabricius of Obese strain (OS) chickens, which spontaneously develop autoimmune thyroiditis, as well as in their healthy counterparts androgen(AR)-, estrogen(ER)-, progestin(PR)- and glucocorticoid(GR)-receptors in an attempt to elucidate possible further pathomechanisms, namely at the target site of steroid hormones. The characterization (affinity, specificity, association- and dissociation-rate, sedimentation behaviour) of all four types of receptors revealed no difference between sex or strain. Furthermore, the ontogeny study of the receptor capacity and affinity from the 7th embryonic day (i.e. before lymphocyte settlement) until bursa involution, again showed no difference between OS and healthy chickens of either sex. Thus, it can be concluded that the principal sex dependency of the susceptibility to autoimmune disease results predominantly from differences in sex steroid levels per se, although alterations in mechanisms beyond the cytosolic receptor level can presently not be excluded.     

Dietary protein regulates in vitro lipogenesis and lipogenic gene expression in broilers

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the possible relationship between certain indices of lipid metabolism and specific gene expression in chickens fed graded levels of dietary crude protein. Male, broiler chickens growing from 7 to 28 days of age were fed diets containing 12, 21 or 30% protein ad libitum. In addition, another group of birds was fed on a regimen consisting of a daily change in the dietary protein level (12 or 30%). This latter group was further subdivided such that one-half of the birds received each level of protein on alternating days. Birds were sampled from 28 to 30 days of age. Measurements taken included in vitro lipogenesis, malic enzyme activity the expression of the genes for malic enzyme, fatty acid synthase and acetyl coenzyme carboxylase. In vitro lipogenesis and malic enzyme activity were inversely related to dietary protein levels (12-30%) and to acute changes from 12 to 30%. In contrast, expression of malic enzyme, fatty acid synthase and acetyl CoA carboxylase genes were constant over a dietary protein range of 12-21%, but decreased by feeding a 30% protein diet (acute or chronic feeding). Results of the present study demonstrate a continued role for protein in the regulation of broiler metabolism. It should be pointed out, however, that metabolic regulation at the gene level only occurs when feeding very high levels of dietary protein.     

Changes of Relative Weight and Cell Cycle,and Lesions of Bursa of Fabricius Induced by Dietary Excess Vanadium in Broilers

The purpose of this 42-day study was to investigate the effects of dietary excess vanadium on immune function by determining the morphological changes and cell cycle of bursa of Fabricius, and the serum Ig contents. A total of 420 one-day-old avian broilers were divided into six groups and fed on a corn–soybean basal diet as control diet, or the same diet amended to contain 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 ppm vanadium supplied as ammonium metavanadate. When compared with that of control group, the relative weight of bursa was significantly increased in the 15 ppm group from 14 to 35 days of age and increased in the 5 ppm group at 42 days of age, and significantly decreased in the 60 ppm group from 14 to 42 days of age and decreased in 30 and 45 ppm groups from 35 to 42 days of age. Pathological lesions progressed as the dietary vanadium increased. The gross lesions of bursa showed obvious atrophy with decreased volume and pale color in 45 and 60 ppm groups. Histopathologically, widened cortex and increased number of lymphocytes appeared in 5 and 15 ppm groups, and reduced lymphocytes and connective tissue hyperplasia appeared in 45 and 60 ppm groups. The bursal cells in static phase (G₀/G₁) were decreased, and those in the mitotic phase (G₂ + M) and the proliferating index (PI) were increased in 5 and 15 ppm groups. However, bursal cells in the G₀/G₁ phase were increased, and those in G₂ + M phase, synthesis phase (S) and the PI were decreased in 45 and 60 ppm groups. Also, the serum IgG and IgA contents were increased in 5 and 15 ppm groups, and the serum IgG, IgA, and IgM contents were decreased in 45 and 60 ppm groups. These results suggested that dietary excess vanadium (45 and 60 ppm) could inhibit growth of bursa of Fabricius and impair humoral immunity in chicken.     

Regulating properties of peptides of the thymus and bursa of Fabricius in immunodepression in birds

The intensity of nucleic acids and protein synthesis in the cells of the thymus and the bursa of Fabricius was studied in chickens against the background of an immunodepression induced by administration of hydrocortisone and cyclophosphamide. It was found out that hydrocortisone causes in chicken a marked lowering of the intensity of inclusion of 3H-thymidine, 3H-uridine and 14C-glycine in thymic cells, and cyclophosphamide--in the cells of the bursa of Fabricius. Under the conditions of selective immunodepression the preparations on the basis of the peptides of the thymus (thymalin) and of the bursa of Fabricius (bursilin) regulate the processes of nucleic acids and protein synthesis chiefly in the cells of organs which produce them.     

The Decrease of Relative Weight,Lesions, and Apoptosis of Bursa of Fabricius Induced by Excess Dietary Selenium in Chickens

Selenium is an essential trace element possessing immune-stimulatory properties. The purpose of this 42-day study was to investigate the effects of excess dietary sodium selenite on immune function by determining morphological changes and apoptosis of bursa of Fabricius. Three hundred 1-day-old Avian broilers were fed on a basic diet (0.2 ppm selenium) or the same diet amended to contain 1, 5, 10, and 15 ppm selenium supplied as sodium selenite (n = 60/group). Relative weight of bursa was significantly decreased in the 1, 5, 10, and 15 ppm groups at 28 days of age, when compared with that of 0.2 ppm group. Pathological lesions were progressed with the dietary Se level increased. The gross lesions of bursa involved obvious atrophy with decreased volume and pale color. Histopathologically, decreased number of lymphocytes and loosely packed lymphocytes appeared in the medulla and cortex in the follicles. Ultrastructurally, mitochondria injury and increased apoptotic cells with condensed nuclei were observed. In comparison to that of control group, excess Se (5, 10, and 15 ppm) intake increased the percentage of Annexin V positive cells, as measured by flow cytometry. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase 2′-deoxyuridine 5′-triphosphate nick end-labeling assay showed that there were increased frequencies of apoptotic cells in 10 and 15 ppm selenium groups. These data suggest that Se supplementation with sodium selenite should be carefully evaluated as excess selenium (more than 5 ppm) intake could cause profound immunologic inhibition.     

Influence of dietary rice culture material containing cyclopiazonic acid on certain serum biochemical parameters of broiler chickens

Three hundred and forty-eight Vencob broiler chickens were fed diets containingPenicillium griseofulvum rice culture material with 0, 12.5, 25 and 50 ppm of the mycotoxin cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) for 28 days. Serum samples were collected from 9 birds in each group at weekly intervals to study the effect of sublethal doses of CPA on certain serum biochemical parameters. Significant reductions in weight gains (p<0.01) and feed consumptions (p<0.05) were observed at 25 and 50 ppm. Exocrine pancreas showed degenerative and necrotic changes in CPA fed chickens. The CPA had significant (p<0.05) influence on serum total protein, albumin, cholesterol, amylase and lipase levels. CPA did not affect serum glucose levels. There was a decline in levels of total serum protein and albumin in CPA fed groups. But serum cholesterol, amylase and lipase showed dose-dependent increases.Paper presented in XI Indian Association of Veterinary Pathologists conference held at Anand, India, Dec 13–15, 1994.     

Broad dissemination of Histomonas meleagridis determined by the detection of nucleic acid in different organs after experimental infection of turkeys and specified pathogen-free chickens using a mono-eukaryotic culture of the parasite

Histomonas meleagridis, a flagellated protozoan parasite, is the causative agent of histomonosis (syn. histomoniasis, blackhead) in turkeys and chickens. The organs primarily affected by the parasite are the caeca and the liver. Until now, only few reports exist in which the parasite has been diagnosed in tissues other than those mentioned above. Hence, the aim of this study was to perform a systematic investigation of various organs of turkeys and specified pathogen-free chickens following an experimental infection with a mono-eukaryotic culture of Histomonas meleagridis in order to determine the dissemination of the flagellate in infected birds. Molecular methods like PCR and in situ hybridization were used for this purpose. For the first time, the DNA of the parasite could be detected in 13 different organs of infected turkeys by PCR including the proventriculus, duodenum, jejunum, caeca, pancreas, bursa of Fabricius, liver, kidney, spleen, heart, lung, thymus and the brain. Most of these findings were further confirmed by in situ hybridization. In contrast to the turkeys that all died shortly after the infection, all of the chickens survived without displaying any clinical symptoms. Even at necropsy, only mild pathological changes were observed in the caeca. Nevertheless, the parasite could also be detected in various organs of these birds, namely the caeca, bursa of Fabricius, kidney, heart and the brain.