农药对捕食性天敌的影响研究进展

捕食性天敌在害虫的自然控制方面起着重要作用。当害虫大发生时,需使用化学农药来进行有效控害,但化学农药会对捕食性天敌的生存造成影响。因此,了解农药对捕食性天敌的影响有利于协调化学防治和生物防治的关系。大部分农药对捕食性天敌的生长发育和繁殖表现为抑制作用,但有的为促进作用。在农药的干扰下,多数捕食性天敌的信息识别能力会降低,少部分会通过提高雄虫接收性信息素的能力或增加雌虫性信息素的释放来诱导求偶行为、增加交配频率。有的杀虫剂会影响捕食性天敌的捕食行为及捕食功能,部分杀虫剂会直接使其捕食功能模型由Holling-Ⅱ型转变为Holling-Ⅰ型。在农药胁迫下,捕食性天敌会产生抗药性,其解毒酶活性升高、保护酶活性改变及靶标部位敏感性下降可能是抗药性产生的机理。农药对捕食性天敌的影响研究在协调害虫化学防治和生物防治中有着重要的理论和现实意义,可以有效地推进捕食性天敌在害虫综合治理中的应用。     

我国烟粉虱主要捕食和寄生性天敌控制能力研究进展

烟粉虱Bemisia tabaci Gennadius是一种广泛分布于世界各地的多食性害虫,对我国多个省市区的农作物和观赏植物造成了严重的危害。化学杀虫剂的大量使用在杀伤天敌的同时使烟粉虱产生了不同程度的抗性,防治越来越困难;相较于化学防治,在不同地区筛选有效的天敌对烟粉虱进行生物防治是对烟粉虱进行有效控制的重要方法。我国报道的捕食性天敌共计26科109种,寄生性天敌共计2科59种。烟粉虱防治过程中由于单一的防治效果不理想,联合多个天敌资源的利用是增加对烟粉虱的生物防治效果的重要手段。本文通过对我国烟粉虱捕食性和寄生性天敌种类系统全面的整理,同时对烟粉虱优势种天敌中的单种或者多种组合利用后对烟粉虱的的控害潜能进行综述,以期为烟粉虱天敌昆虫种类的筛选和实现高效的生物防治提供科学依据。     

Intraguild interactions of aphidophagous predators in fields: effect of Coccinella septempunctata and Episyrphus balteatus occurrence on aphid infested plants

Intraguild relations between beneficial insects have become a major research topic in biological pest control. In order to understand the intraguild competitions between aphidophagous populations in natural conditions, a field experiment was carried out in the experimental farm of the Gembloux Agricultural University. As biological control of pests involve a community of diverse natural enemies, this experiment firstly aimed to assess the aphidophagous predator diversity and abundance in green pea (Pisum sativum) field and secondly to investigate the impact of the large natural occurrence of C. septempunctata on the aphidophagous beneficial dispersion and efficiency as aphid biological control agents in pea field. Visual observations were weekly performed throughout the 2006 growing season. The pea aphids were attacked by several predatory groups, mainly ladybird beetles and hoverflies. Higher densities of ladybirds and hoverflies were recorded in the beginning of July, associated with an aphid occurrence peak. Using net cage system in the field, the particular intraguild relations between added C. septempunctata or E. balteatus and the natural beneficial arrivals and dispersion were observed. The E. batteatus (eggs and larvae) presence inhibited other aphidophagous predators presence on the aphid infested plants. Lower abundance of E. balteatus was observed on aphid infested plants already colonised by C. septempunctata. To explore more accurately the oviposition and predation behaviours of ladybirds and hoverflies and to determine the chemical factors that could influence these behaviours, current researches are performed in laboratory and will be discussed to promote efficient biological control of aphids by natural enemies.     

Larval trematode antagonism: principles and possible application as a control method

The main features of trematode antagonism are reviewed briefly, and results of recent field experiments to test whether trematode antagonism can be used for control of trematode infections are discussed. These results show that it is easy to control trematode infections by dispersing large numbers of eggs of a dominant parasite in relatively small bodies of water. Such release may produce a multiple effect: (1) intertrematode antagonism; (2) considerable decrease in the snail population due to higher mortality and parasitic castration of infected snails; and (3) a microsporidan epidemic caused by a hyperparasite, affecting rediae and sporocysts and leading to suppression of cercarial production. Any one or a combination of the three effects may achieve control of the target species. The usefulness of this biological control method depends largely on whether dominant parasites can be found that fulfill the requirements for large-scale application and on whether other factors interfere with antagonism or prevent snails from becoming infected with the dominant speices. A good dominant trematode should be strongly antagonistic to the target species, have a wide geographic distribution, develop rapidly in the snail and cause complete castration, be easily maintained in the laboratory, and preferably be capable of infecting the snail hosts in their various habitats. Development of efficient methods of dispersing eggs and more field experiments are necessary to determine the advantages and limitations of this method.     

Review Behaviour and indirect interactions in food webs of plant-inhabiting arthropods

With the increased use of biological control agents, artificial food webs are created in agricultural crops and the interactions between plants, herbivores and natural enemies change from simple tritrophic interactions to more complex food web interactions. Therefore, herbivore densities will not only be determined by direct predator–prey interactions and direct and indirect defence of plants against herbivores, but also by other direct and indirect interactions such as apparent competition, intraguild predation, resource competition, etc. Although these interactions have received considerable attention in theory and experiments, little is known about their impact on biological control. In this paper, we first present a review of indirect food web interactions in biological control systems. We propose to distinguish between numerical indirect interactions, which are interactions where one species affects densities of another species through an effect on the numbers of an intermediate species and functional indirect interactions, defined as changes in the way that two species interact through the presence of a third species. It is argued that functional indirect interactions are important in food webs and deserve more attention. Subsequently, we discuss experimental results on interactions in an artificial food web consisting of pests and natural enemies on greenhouse cucumber. The two pest species are the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae and the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis. Their natural enemies are the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, which is commonly used for spider mite control and the predatory mites Neoseiulus cucumeris and Iphiseius degenerans and the predatory bug Orius laevigatus, all natural enemies of thrips. First, we analyse the possible interactions between these seven species and we continue by discussing how functional indirect interactions, particularly the behaviour of arthropods, may change the significance and impact of direct interactions and numerical indirect interactions. It was found that a simple food web of only four species already gives rise to some quite complicated combinations of interactions. Spider mites and thrips interact indirectly through resource competition, but thrips larvae are intraguild predators of spider mites. Some of the natural enemies used for control of the two herbivore species are also intraguild predators. Moreover, spider mites produce a web that is subsequently used by thrips to hide from their predators. We discuss these and other results obtained so far and we conclude with a discussion of the potential impact of functional indirect and direct interactions on food webs and their significance for biological control.     

Review: predatory soil mites as biocontrol agents of above- and below-ground plant pests

Biological pest control is becoming increasingly important for sustainable agriculture. Although many species of natural enemies are already being used commercially, efficient biological control of various pests is still lacking, and there is a need for more biocontrol agents. In this review, we focus on predatory soil mites, their role as natural enemies, and their biocontrol potential, mainly in vegetable and ornamental crops, with an emphasis on greenhouse systems. These predators are still underrepresented in biological control, but have several advantages compared to predators living on above-ground plant parts. For example, predatory soil mites are often easy and affordable to mass rear, as most of them are generalist predators, which also means that they may be used against various pests and can survive periods of pest scarcity by feeding on alternative prey or food. Many of them can also endure unfavourable conditions, making it easier for them to establish in various crops. Based on the current literature, we show that they have potential to control a variety of pests, both in greenhouses and in the field. However, more research is needed to fully understand and appreciate their potential as biocontrol agents. We review and discuss several methods to increase their efficiency, such as supplying them with alternative food and changing soil/litter structure to enable persistence of their populations. We conclude that predatory soil mites deserve more attention in future studies to increase their application in agricultural crops.

     

Current status and future perspectives on natural enemies for pest control in Taiwan

ABSTRACT

In Taiwan, the agricultural policy, ‘Reduce the consumption of pesticide to half in the next 10 years’, was launched in 2017. Pesticide application, which results in contamination of food by chemical residues, pest resistance, and other adverse ecological effects, is a growing public and environmental concern. Pest control by natural predators is, thus, the best alternative. Biological control methods implemented based on insights obtained from studies on pest behaviour, rearing, and various crop management modes, increase the possibility of controlling pests in modern organic agricultural systems. More than a decade has passed since the first introduction of a predatory insect in Taiwan for pest control (in the 1990s). Predatory and parasitic natural enemies, including lacewing, predatory stink bugs, Orius, and parasitic wasps, were initially used for controlling thrips, aphids, spider mites, whiteflies, and lepidopteran pests. At present, there exists a wide range of integrated pest management (IPM) methods incorporating other non-chemical, biological, and agricultural methods. However, recently, there has been an increase in research and development on the utilisation of natural enemies of insects and the associated food safety issues. Mass production and release, storage, and handling techniques of insect predators and parasitoids have been successful in recent years. The final goal of present day research is to develop natural enemy products and provide an IPM-based model to farmers for using natural enemies in agricultural production systems, thereby reducing pesticide application and ensuring food security.     

The importance of antennae for pea aphid wing induction in the presence of natural enemies

The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris has been shown to produce an increasing proportion of winged morphs among its offspring when exposed to natural enemies, in particular hoverfly larvae, lacewing larvae, adult and larval ladybirds and aphidiid parasitoids. While these results suggest that wing induction in the presence of predators and parasitoids is a general response of the pea aphid, the cues and mechanisms underlying this response are still unclear. Tactile stimuli and the perception of chemical signals as well as visual signals are candidates for suitable cues in the presence of natural enemies. In this paper the hypothesis that the aphids' antennae are crucial for the wing induction in the presence of natural enemies is tested. Antennae of pea aphids were ablated and morph production was scored when aphids were reared either in the presence or the absence of predatory lacewing larvae over a six-day period. Ablation of antennae resulted in a drastic drop in the proportion of winged morphs among the offspring, both in the presence and the absence of a predator whereas predator presence increased wing induction in aphids with intact antennae, as reported in previous experiments. The results show that antennae are necessary for wing induction in the presence of natural enemies. Critical re-examination of early work on the importance of aphid antennae and tactile stimuli for wing induction suggests that a combination of tactile and chemical cues is likely to be involved not only in predator-induced wing formation but also for wing induction in response to factors such as crowding in the aphid colony.     

Reprint of: Biological control of rice insect pests in China

Rice is one of the most important food crops in the world. China has the second largest area of the rice growing in the world and the highest yield of rice produced. Infestation by insect pests, especially rice planthoppers, stem borers and leaf folders, is always a serious challenge to rice production in China. Current methods for controlling insect pests in China mainly include good farming practices, biological control, breeding and growing resistant varieties, and the use of chemical insecticides. However, for farmers, the favorite method for insect pest control is still the application of chemical insecticide, which not only causes severe environmental pollution and the resurgence of herbivores but also reduces populations of the natural enemies of herbivores. To control insect pests safely, effectively and sustainably, strategies encouraging biological control are currently demanded. Here we review the progress that has been made in the development and implementation of biological controls for rice in China since the 1970s. Such progress includes the species identification of the natural enemies of rice insect pests, the characterization of their biology, and the integration of biological controls in integrated pest management. To develop effective ecological engineering programs whose aim is to implement conservation biological controls, further research, including the evaluation of the roles of plants in non-crop habitats in conservation biological controls, volatiles in enhancing efficiency of natural enemies and natural enemies in manipulating insect pests, and education to increase farmers’ knowledge of biological controls, is proposed.     

Scanning electron microscopy of damage caused by Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides (Copepoda: Cyclopoidea) on larvae of the Dengue fever vector Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne viral disease, whose main biological vector is Aedes aegypti. This mosquito colonizes tropical areas where the disease is endemic. The most obvious action against dengue is attacking its vector. Biological control appears to be an alternative approach, using natural enemies of the mosquitoes, such as predatory copepods. Thus, the morphological study of the damage caused by copepods is important to understand its predatory capacity. Twenty-five A. aegypti larvae were exposed to the copepod Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides and the damage caused by the copepods was evaluated using scanning electron microscopy. The larvae showed damage mainly at the anal segment, the siphon and the abdomen; only three attacks to the head were observed. The size of the siphon might be of importance in determining whether or not a copepod will attack a mosquito larva.     

捕食性天敌昆虫控害作用定量评价方法

天敌昆虫田间捕食作用与能力的研究,通常采用田间种群数量调查与分析的方法或笼罩试验来评价其控制作用,但往往与实际情况不符,尤其是对可捕食多种猎物的非专食性天敌,很难说明其在田间对某一特定猎物的控制作用究竟有多大,而分子生物学技术为捕食者-猎物关系评价研究提供了新途径。本文系统介绍了基于种特异性SS-PCR标记技术和TaqMan-MGB实时荧光定量PCR技术的捕食性天敌控害作用定量评价方法及其优缺点,旨在为害虫天敌的种类筛选及其保护利用提供技术指导。     

The state of commercial augmentative biological control: plenty of natural enemies,but a frustrating lack of uptake

Augmentative biological control concerns the periodical release of natural enemies. In commercial augmentative biological control, natural enemies are mass-reared in biofactories for release in large numbers to obtain an immediate control of pests. The history of commercial mass production of natural enemies spans a period of roughly 120 years. It has been a successful, environmentally and economically sound alternative for chemical pest control in crops like fruit orchards, maize, cotton, sugar cane, soybean, vineyards and greenhouses. Currently, augmentative biological control is in a critical phase, even though during the past decades it has moved from a cottage industry to professional production. Many efficient species of natural enemies have been discovered and 230 are commercially available today. The industry developed quality control guidelines, mass production, shipment and release methods as well as adequate guidance for farmers. However, augmentative biological control is applied on a frustratingly small acreage. Trends in research and application are reviewed, causes explaining the limited uptake are discussed and ways to increase application of augmentative biological control are explored.     

Biological control of aphids in the presence of thrips and their enemies

Generalist predators are often used in biological control programs, although they can be detrimental for pest control through interference with other natural enemies. Here, we assess the effects of generalist natural enemies on the control of two major pest species in sweet pepper: the green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and the western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande). In greenhouses, two commonly used specialist natural enemies of aphids, the parasitoid Aphidius colemani Viereck and the predatory midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani), were released together with either Neoseiulus cucumeris Oudemans, a predator of thrips and a hyperpredator of A. aphidimyza, or Orius majusculus (Reuter), a predator of thrips and aphids and intraguild predator of both specialist natural enemies. The combined use of O. majusculus, predatory midges and parasitoids clearly enhanced the suppression of aphids and consequently decreased the number of honeydew-contaminated fruits. Although intraguild predation by O. majusculus on predatory midges and parasitoids will have affected control of aphids negatively, this was apparently offset by the consumption of aphids by O. majusculus. In contrast, the hyperpredator N. cucumeris does not prey upon aphids, but seemed to release aphids from control by consuming eggs of the midge. Both N. cucumeris and O. majusculus did not affect rates of aphid parasitism by A. colemani. Thrips were also controlled effectively by O. majusculus. A laboratory experiment showed that adult predatory bugs feed on thrips as well as aphids and have no clear preference. Thus, the presence of thrips probably promoted the establishment of the predatory bugs and thereby the control of aphids. Our study shows that intraguild predation, which is potentially negative for biological control, may be more than compensated by positive effects of generalist predators, such as the control of multiple pests, and the establishment of natural enemies prior to pest invasions. Future work on biological control should focus on the impact of species interactions in communities of herbivorous arthropods and their enemies.     

Adaptive Release of Natural Enemies in a Pest-Natural Enemy System with Pesticide Resistance

Integrated pest management options such as combining chemical and biological control are optimal for combating pesticide resistance, but pose questions if a pest is to be controlled to extinction. These questions include (i) what is the relationship between the evolution of pesticide resistance and the number of natural enemies released? (ii) How does the cumulative number of natural enemies dying affect the number of natural enemies to be released? To address these questions, we developed two novel pest-natural enemy interaction models incorporating the evolution of pesticide resistance. We investigated the number of natural enemies to be released when threshold conditions for the extinction of the pest population in two different control tactics are reached. Our results show that the number of natural enemies to be released to ensure pest eradication in the presence of increasing pesticide resistance can be determined analytically and depends on the cumulative number of dead natural enemies before the next scheduled release time.     

Constraints to the implementation of biological control in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is a tropical island with a rich diversity of arthropods, with many species of indigenous natural enemies of economic pests. However, no extensive island wide surveys have been carried out for natural enemies of major crop ecosystems and only a few of the indigenous natural enemies are reported useful for augmentation biological pest control by massive field releases of laboratory-produced insects. Most successful biological control programs on the island are importation (i.e. classical) biological control programs, where established exotic natural enemies control certain pest populations in valuable crops. There is growing interest in the use of native natural enemies in pest management, thus creating a need for intensive research on the ecology of indigenous natural enemies and development of infrastructure and technology to produce natural enemies for augmentation. This paper examines constraints and opportunities for implementation of biological control in Sri Lanka.     

Ecology in the service of biological control: the case of entomopathogenic nematodes

 Biological control manipulations of natural enemies to reduce pest populations represent large-scale ecological experiments that have both benefited from and contributed to various areas of modern ecology. Unfortunately, economic expediency and the need for rapid implementation often require that biological control programs be based more on trial and error than on sound ecological theory and testing. This approach has led to some remarkable successes but it has also produced dismal failures. This point is particularly well illustrated in the historical development and use of entomopathogenic nematodes for the biological control of insect pests. Intense effort has focused on developing these natural enemies as alternatives to chemical insecticides, in part because laboratory assays indicated that these nematodes possess a broad host range. This illusory attribute launched hundreds of field releases, many of which failed due to ecological barriers to infection that are not apparent from laboratory exposures, where conditions are optimal and host-parasite contact assured. For example, the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae is a poor choice to control scarab larvae because this nematode uses an ambusher foraging strategy near the soil surface whereas the equally sedentary scarab remains within the soil profile, shows a weak host recognition response to scarabs, has difficulty overcoming the scarab immune response, and has low reproduction in this host. Conversely, two other nematodes, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and S. glaseri, are highly adapted to parasitize scarabs: they use a cruising foraging strategy, respond strongly to scarabs, easily overcome the immune response, and reproduce well in these hosts. Increased understanding of the ecology of entomopathogenic nematodes has enabled better matches between parasites and hosts, and more accurate predictions of field performance. These results underline the importance of a strong partnership between basic and applied ecology in the area of biological control. Received: 15 July 1996 / Accepted: 5 November 1996     

化学杀虫剂对菜田节肢动物多样性的影响

分析了化学杀虫剂对菜田节肢动物结构组成、多样性变化等的影响,结果表明化学杀虫剂对菜田节肢动物的影响主要表现在物种组成、多样性指数及物种分布的均匀性等方面,尤其是对害虫类、捕食性天敌和蜘蛛类的影响尤为明显。停止化学杀虫剂使用后,菜田优势害虫种群趋势指数降低,天敌的控制作用明显增强,节肢动物多样性指数增大。因此,限制和停止化学杀虫剂的使用,恢复由于杀虫剂使用而破坏了的菜田环境,逐步增强天敌对优势害虫的控制能力,这在菜田害虫生态控制中具有重要作用。     

麦蚜的不同防治方法对麦田节肢动物功能团的影响

【目的】本文从功能团的角度研究了不同的麦蚜防治方法对小麦田节肢功能团的影响,为进一步研究小麦田内生物多样性提供了基础。【方法】本试验采用黄板、诱虫灯、糖醋液及3种方法综合使用的方法防治麦蚜,系统调查了这些防治方法对小麦田节肢功能团的影响。【结果】综合使用黄板、诱虫灯、糖醋液防治麦蚜能够提高昆虫群落和蚜虫亚群落的稳定性,降低小麦蚜虫种类和天敌种类丰盛度,采用防治措施的小麦田内捕食性天敌的群落稳定性均较差,单一防治措施的使用对麦田内昆虫群落相对丰盛度、蚜虫亚群落稳定性、捕食性天敌群落稳定性也有一定影响。【结论】在农田生态系统中,不同的防治方法对昆虫群落的影响不同。在实际应用中我们应合理搭配使用麦蚜的防治方法。     

The contribution of conservation biological control to integrated control of Bemisia tabaci in cotton

Integrated control systems are based on the complimentary contribution of chemical and biological control fostered by conservation of natural enemies. Yet, in the 50 years since the integrated control concept [ICC] [Stern, V.M., Smith, R.F., van den Bosch, R., Hagen, K.S., 1959. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia 29, 81–101] was introduced there are few operational programs and even fewer attempts to analyze the mechanisms that allow chemical and biological control to act in concert. The dearth of demonstrable evidence for the ICC has eroded the credibility of biological control and its usage in operational IPM plans. We used in situ life tables within an experimental design to measure and compare the contribution and interaction of biological control and insecticides as tactical components within three pest management systems for Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in cotton. Insecticides were the key factor immediately following applications of broad-spectrum materials or one of two selective insect growth regulators (IGRs), and this mortality replaced that provided by natural enemies. Two to six weeks later, however, mortality from natural enemies, primarily predation, in the IGR regimes rebounded to the high levels observed in untreated controls and became the key factor. Mortality from natural enemies remained depressed in the broad-spectrum insecticide regime. Single IGR applications were sufficient to suppress B. tabaci populations throughout the season, while up to five broad-spectrum applications were needed to achieve comparable control. The chemical residual of IGRs was limited to several weeks, demonstrating a key role for mortality from conserved natural enemies that extended the control interval. This “bioresidual” allows for long-term, commercially-acceptable pest suppression following the use of selective insecticides. We provide a rare experimental illustration of integrated control, where chemical and biological controls “augment one another”. Our approach and methodology could be applied to demonstrate and validate integrated control in many other systems, addressing a critical need for implementation of biological control in practicing IPM systems.     

Failure of Echinostoma lindoense to reinfect snails already harboring that species.

In Biomphalaria glabrata snails already harboring Echinostoma lindoense, attempts at reinfection with the same trematode species failed when the interval between exposures was 6 days or more. With 2 days between exposures, the experimental snails were as susceptible to reinfection as the control snails. Between these limits, the reinfection failure rate increased with the exposure interval. Failure to reinfect the snails was probably due to cannibalism, young sporocysts from the second infection being swallowed by predatory rediae from the first infection. Development of sporocysts in successfully reinfected snails was normal.