中国大陆自然保护地概况及分类体系构想

自1956年我国建立第一个自然保护区以来, 截至2016年底, 我国已建立了约10种类型且数量庞大的自然保护地。随着我国生态文明建设的不断发展,建立以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系不仅是国家提出的重要任务,也是我国自然保护地未来发展的必然趋势。然而, 由于我国目前各类自然保护地尚无统一的分类体系, 已有的自然保护地之间存在着概念界定不清、分类体系混乱、主导功能模糊、地理空间重叠等诸多问题。这不仅严重阻碍了我国现有自然保护地的优化整合和国家公园体制建设,而且不便于开展国际交流。因此迫切需要明确自然保护地的定义, 建立一套适用于我国且有利于国际交流的自然保护地分类体系。本文在介绍自然保护地的概念与内涵,以及我国10类自然保护地建设和分类体系现状的基础上,重点梳理了我国自然保护地的发展历程, 比较了各类自然保护地的定义、内涵以及主要分类依据,并提出了3种能够涵盖目前各类自然保护地的分类体系构想,它们分别基于IUCN保护区分类系统、保护对象自然属性和管理目标社会属性。希望这些构想能在未来自然保护地分类体系的研究中起到抛砖引玉的作用。     

Distribution and management of invasive alien plant species in protected areas in Central Europe

Protected areas play a key role in biodiversity conservation, yet they face numerous pressures including the spread of invasive alien species (IAS). We designed a structured online survey to investigate the distribution and management of 53 invasive alien plant species in large protected areas, i.e. national parks and biosphere reserves, in eight Central European countries. We contacted 93 protected areas management authorities, of which 46 replied. In 44 protected areas (96% of those responding), at least one IAS was present, and in 37 protected areas (80%) IAS were managed. On average, 11.2 ± 6.9 IAS were present per protected area and 4.3 ± 3.4 (41%) of these were managed. A one-way ANOVA showed no significant difference in the number of IAS present or managed between the different protected area designations (national parks, biosphere reserves). Similarly, neither the size nor the founding year of the protected area influenced the number of IAS present or managed. Thirty-one species (58%) were managed in at least one protected area. The most widely managed species were Fallopia japonica (23 protected areas), Heracleum mantegazzianum (20), and Impatiens glandulifera (16). The amount of financial resources devoted to IAS management was rather low, corresponding to 3.1 ± 4.4% of the total budget for natural resources management of the protected areas. We conclude that a lack of dedicated funding for IAS management in most protected areas and a lack of coordinated response between protected areas currently limit the effectiveness of the IAS management. In particular, an increased exchange of expertise between protected areas, and the development of minimum standards for IAS surveillance and management are pivotal. In addition, documenting best practice examples and synthesizing lessons learned in IAS management are urgently needed.     

Limitations of Protected Areas Zoning in Mediterranean Cultural Landscapes Under the Ecosystem Services Approach

Protected areas have been created worldwide to set apart certain areas from land-use transformation. The biodiversity and ecosystems protected by these areas deliver several ecosystem services. Recently, besides increasing global protected coverage, there has been a growing demand to assess the adequacy of protected areas management. In this study, we assessed how the management of protected areas can deal with ecosystem services taking as example the Doñana and Sierra Nevada protected areas (Spain). For that aim we analyzed the protected area management plans, mapped seven ecosystem services, and assessed how they are affected by protected area zoning and land-use intensity. We found that although provisioning and cultural services are included in the management plans of the protected areas under a different terminology, regulating services are barely addressed. Ecosystem service delivery varies depending on several factors including the protection category of the protected areas (protection intensity), land-use intensity and geomorphological factors, among others. Therefore, we discuss that integrating ecosystem services in protected area management requires dealing with complexity, necessitating the establishment of specific goals for ecosystem service delivery, which include ecosystem service synergies and trade-offs.     

Low ecological representation in the protected area network of China

Protected areas are considered as an essential strategy to halt the decline of biodiversity. Ecological representation in protected areas is crucial for assessment on the progress toward conservation targets. Although China has established a large number of protected areas since the 1950s, ecological representation of protected areas is poorly understood. Here, we performed the complementarity analysis to evaluate ecological representation of protected areas in China. We used a database of the geographical distribution for 10,396 woody plant species, 2,305 fern species, 406 amphibian species, 460 reptile species, 1,364 bird species, and 590 mammal species from 2,376 counties across China. We identified complementary sets of counties for all species or threatened species of plant and vertebrate species using a complementarity algorithm. We evaluated ecological representation of 3,627 protected areas and discerned conservation gaps by comparing the distribution of protected areas with complementary sets. The results show that the spatially representative and complementary sites for biodiversity are poorly covered, and a fairly large proportion of protected areas is not designed to efficiently represent biodiversity at the national scale. Our methodology can serve as a generic framework for assessment on ecological representation of protected areas at the national scale.     

北京市自然保护地生态效益及其影响因素

自然保护地是生物多样性富集区域,发挥着水源涵养、防风固沙等重要的生态效益。北京市共5类79处自然保护地,是首都重要生态屏障,但自然因素和人为干扰对自然保护地生态效益有着重要影响。核算了北京自然保护地的5种典型的生态效益,使用单因素方差分析比较了不同类型自然保护地生态效益的差异,并基于冗余分析法探究了2种自然因素(年均气温和年降水量)和4种人为因素(人口密度、建设用地比例、耕地比例和道路密度)对生态效益的影响。结果表明：(1)北京自然保护地总体生态效益：北京自然保护地生境质量高,生境质量指数均值高达0.88;其它4项可价值化的生态效益中,水源涵养价值最大,固碳价值最低。(2)各类自然保护地之间生态效益比较：除生境质量外,其它4个生态效益之和,自然保护区和森林公园显著高于其它3类自然保护地;湿地公园的生境质量显著低于其它4类保护地,而这4类保护地之间生境质量并无显著差异;从水源涵养的生态效益来看,风景名胜区和地质公园显著低于其它3类自然保护地。(3)人为干扰因素(影响水平为38.92%)对生态效益的影响程度远高于自然因素(影响水平为16.63%);防风固沙、水土保持和固碳效益主要受人为干扰...     

西双版纳保护植物特征研究

经过重新统计和分析,确定了西双版纳地区一共分布有国家级(60种)和省级(41种)保护植物101种,对它们的一些特征进行了初步研究.主要研究了种类及数量特征、分布特征,包括其分布的海拔、植被、区域特征和保护价值等,并且就西双版纳地区保护植物的保护措施提出了建议.     

Protected area networks and savannah bird biodiversity in the face of climate change and land degradation

The extent to which climate change might diminish the efficacy of protected areas is one of the most pressing conservation questions. Many projections suggest that climate‐driven species distribution shifts will leave protected areas impoverished and species inadequately protected while other evidence suggests that intact ecosystems within protected areas will be resilient to change. Here, we tackle this problem empirically. We show how recent changes in distribution of 139 Tanzanian savannah bird species are linked to climate change, protected area status and land degradation. We provide the first evidence of climate‐driven range shifts for an African bird community. Our results suggest that the continued maintenance of existing protected areas is an appropriate conservation response to the challenge of climate and environmental change.     

长江经济带自然保护地边界重叠关系及整合对策分析

我国自然保护地类型多样,级别成体系,但由于我国自然保护地一直存在多头管理、权限不清等原因,导致边界混乱、重叠严重。对我国自然保护地空间分布和重叠情况进行梳理是构建以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系的重要基础,能为我国新型自然保护地的科学选址和优化整合提供有效依据。长江经济带作为我国生态、生活、生产均十分重要的区域,其生态保护具有重要的屏障作用。收集了长江经济带11省份建设开展较成熟的6类自然保护地矢量边界2383个,通过构建重叠关系模型,深入分析了不同类型自然保护地间的边界重叠关系,并针对重叠情况提出系统化对策,结果表明：（1）保护地之间具有重叠关系的数量达1296个,占已获取保护地边界总数的54.4%;重叠部分面积达29728.4 km²,占已获取自然保护地总面积的11.4%;总体呈现为西部重叠面积大、数量多,中部重叠数量多,东部重叠面积小的特点。（2）从重叠区域看,有一次重叠区域的保护地有1138组,有两次重叠区域的有249组,有三次重叠区域的有17组,无四次及以上重叠区域。（3）从重叠关系看,与其他5个及以上保护地有重叠的保护地有56个。（4）通过对重叠区域和关系的分析与政策研究,提出针对不同重叠特性的整合对策,包括勘界调整、合并和类型整合等,并将重叠热点区域提取,以期为自然保护地整合和国家公园建设提供数据支撑,为当前中国自然保护地体系改革的紧迫需求提供参考。     

基于爱知生物多样性目标11的我国自然保护地管理有效性评估进展与分析

本文基于我国相关政府部门、国际机构、科研机构和文献关于我国自然保护地管理有效性评估数据, 梳理和分析了我国针对爱知生物多样性目标11的自然保护地管理有效性评估的进展情况。结果显示, 我国已按时完成了爱知生物多样性目标11中2015年之前对60%以上自然保护地管理有效性评估的指标; 目前已开展管理有效性评估的自然保护地面积达136.19万km², 占我国自然保护地面积(186.60万km²)的72.99%; 我国自然保护地管理有效性受多方关注。本研究调查数据与世界自然保护地数据库、自然保护地管理有效性全球数据库的数据差异较大; 我国自然保护地管理有效性评估工具多样, 各类型自然保护地管理有效性评估工作进展差异显著, 管理有效性评估标准化和连续性有待提高。最后, 提出了如下建议: 加强自然保护地整体性和连通性; 参考世界自然保护区委员会的评估框架和世界自然保护联盟自然保护地绿色名录标准, 按照国家公园、自然保护区和自然公园分类制定管理有效性评估规范并将评估制度化; 有效利用评估结果促进我国自然保护地建设的标准化、科学化并建立激励机制等。     

村落文化林与非文化林多尺度物种多样性加性分配

文化林是指村民按照文化传统、风俗习惯或宗教信仰自觉保护和管理的森林,具有一定社会文化功能。目前国内外对文化林物种多样性研究主要为定性描述,缺乏对文化林和非文化林生物多样性的定量比较及差异来源分析。利用物种多样性加性分配方法,将总的Gamma 多样性分成样格内的Alpha多样性以及样格间、样方间和林型间Beta多样性,对中国亚热带地区3个村落文化林的乔木层、灌木层、草本层和藤本层进行物种多样性的多尺度分析。调查发现:(1)文化林共有维管束植物296种,以苦槠,樟和米槠为优势种,非文化林共有维管束植物189种,以杉木、马尾松和毛竹为优势种。文化林乔木层和灌木层物种数显著高于非文化林,草本层和藤本层物种数差异不显著。(2)Beta多样性随尺度增大而增加,林型间Beta多样性最高,占区域总Gamma多样性的41.9%-62.8%,其次是样方间Beta多样性(18.6%-31.9%),对区域多样性贡献最小为样格内Alpha和样格间Beta多样性。(3)林型间的多样性对区域物种多样性的贡献中,文化林占主导作用,乔木层占54.4%-81.0%,灌木层占51.2%-60.2%,草本层占42.9%-64.1%,藤本层占49.9%-62.2%。(4) 物种累积-面积曲线表明,在各个尺度上,文化林物种多样性始终高于非文化林,从而在相同面积下保护了更多的物种。加性分配模型在多个空间尺度上阐明了Alpha和Beta多样性的变化,突出了文化林对区域物种多样性的贡献,对保护对象和保护范围的决策以及生物多样性的保护与恢复具有重要意义。     

Advantages and drawbacks of living in protected areas: the case of the threatened Erysimum popovii (Brassicaceae) in SE Iberian Peninsula

Protected areas help to develop regional and global strategies for the conservation of biodiversity. However, human-related activities, such as grazing, tourism, hardwood extraction, etc., may cause the decline of some species. In this study, we investigate whether inhabiting protected areas affect the conservation of Erysimum popovii, a narrow endemic and endangered plant, in Mediterranean environments with traditional human activities. We surveyed its entire distribution area in SE Spain, and located 31 populations, 16 within Nature Parks (Category V of the IUCN) and 15 in non protected areas. In each population we measured several variables related to habitat composition, pollinator community, herbivory damage and population viability. Our results show that populations in protected areas inhabit localities at higher altitudes and with more shrub cover. Most important, the abundance of a very effective pollinator type, beeflies, was significantly higher in protected populations. Curiously, damage by ungulates was also more intense in protected areas. The negative effect of herbivory offsets any positive effect played by pollinators in protected areas, and consequently there were not differences in population size or reproductive output inside and outside protected areas. It seems that allowing traditional uses in protected areas may entail negative effects for some vulnerable plant species.     

Effectiveness of Protected Areas for Representing Species and Populations of Terrestrial Mammals in Costa Rica

Costa Rica has one of the greatest percentages (26%) of protected land in the world. The National Protected Areas System (NPAS) of Costa Rica was established in 1976 and currently includes >190 protected areas within seven different protection categories. The effectiveness of the NPAS to represent species, populations, and areas with high species richness has not been properly evaluated. Such evaluations are fundamental to understand what is necessary to strengthen the NPAS and better protect biodiversity. We present a novel assessment of NPAS effectiveness in protecting mammal species. We compiled the geographical ranges of all terrestrial Costa Rican mammals then determined species lists for all protected areas and the estimated proportion of each species’ geographic range protected. We also classified mammal species according to their conservation status using the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. We found almost complete representation of mammal species (98.5%) in protected areas, but low relative coverage (28.3% on average) of their geographic ranges in Costa Rica and 25% of the species were classified as underprotected according to a priori representation targets. Interestingly, many species-rich areas are not protected, and at least 43% of cells covering the entire country are not included in protected areas. Though protected areas in Costa Rica represent species richness well, strategic planning for future protected areas to improve species complementarity and range protection is necessary. Our results can help to define sites where new protected areas can have a greater impact on mammal conservation, both in terms of species richness and range protection.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of changes in protected areas across the Southwestern United States

Protected areas are the core units for preserving habitats and ecological processes. Yet in most regions of the world their geographic, categorical, and institutional evolution remains poorly understood. Here, we report on changes in protected areas in the Southwestern US from 1890 to 2005. Our analysis used the dates of protection of individual parcels in the region to analyze changes by: (a) designating authority (e.g., congressional, administrative), (b) managing agency, (c) protected area types (e.g., wilderness), (d) elevation, (e) ecoregion, and (f) land cover class. In the 1990s, protected area additions tripled compared with the previous decade. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) managed the most protected area after 1990, surpassing that of the US Forest Service. Prior to 1990, most protected areas were found at high elevations, but more recent additions occurred at lower elevations. Land cover types represented in protected areas changed significantly over the last century, with protected areas in forest and woodland systems added prior to 1930 and shrubland, steppe, and savanna systems added after 1980. Additions by BLM occurred mostly by administrative designation. These areas are not permanently protected and so do not provide the level of protection afforded other additions. However these additions are critical for conservation of biodiversity across the region because they occur at elevations and in ecoregions and land cover types that are minimally protected otherwise. Our analysis yielded new insights about permanency, level of protection, and spatial distribution of protected areas, characteristics critical for biodiversity conservation.     

贵州省自然保护地时空演变特征及影响因素

建立自然保护地是推进生态文明建设和支撑经济社会发展的生态安全底线,是实现可持续发展和维护国土生态安全的重要举措。为了揭示自然保护地的宏观空间过程及其影响因素,本研究以贵州省为例,采用最邻近点指数、核密度分析、标准差椭圆等方法,对2002—2017年全省自然保护地的时空分布特征进行分析,并结合地理探测器分析其影响因素。结果表明: 研究期间,贵州省自然保护地的数量、面积、类别呈现出多元化的快速发展状态,形成了以自然保护区、森林公园、风景名胜区为主体,以湿地公园、地质公园、自然遗产地为补充的自然保护地体系。自然保护地空间凝聚的态势不断加强,空间分布的范围不断扩大,空间移动的速度不断下降,形成了以东北-西南方向为主导且逐渐稳定的空间格局。自然保护地凝聚过程受地形和植被分布的影响较大;自然保护地趋向于在河流、山脉周围的地势平缓处和植被集中连片处聚集。自然保护地空间分异受多种影响因素的共同作用,不同影响因素对自然保护地空间分异的解释力存在一定的差异。其中,归一化植被指数、森林面积和公路里程是影响自然保护地数量、面积空间分异的共同主要因素;不同影响因素交互后的解释力明显加强,表现为非线性增强或双因子增强。     

多类型保护地生态承载力核算模型及应用

生态承载力核算是进行保护地科学保护和有效利用的重要基础。多类型保护地是多种类型的保护地分布集中、相邻相连、交叉重叠的地理空间。研究将多类型保护地功能空间与生态系统服务相对应,划分为生态空间、生产空间、生活空间和游憩空间,在此基础上将多类型保护地生态承载力定义为生态系统在这四类空间中维持其重要生态系统服务功能的能力,并将其划分为自然基础承载力、社会经济活动承载力以及游憩承载力,构建了适用于多类型保护地的生态承载力核算框架模型。以三江源国家公园黄河源园区为案例区,进行了生态承载力核算。研究能够为多类型保护地经济建设规模、结构与布局优化调控研究提供科学依据。     

Surveying biodiversity in protected and managed areas: Algae, macrophytes and macroinvertebrates in boreal forest streams

Extensive surveys of biodiversity in protected and managed areas have not been conducted for a majority of taxonomic groups and ecosystem types, which makes it difficult to assess how large a portion of biodiversity is at least potentially under protection. The situation is the same in boreal regions, and only preliminary analyses of the biodiversity patterns of less well-known organism groups, including many freshwater taxa, within the protected area network have been conducted. We studied patterns of species richness and community composition of algae, macrophytes (bryophytes and vascular plants), and macroinvertebrates of headwater streams draining protected areas and managed forests in a boreal drainage basin in Finland. We found no significant differences in the species richness and community composition of these organism groups between the protected and managed streams. Gamma- and beta-diversity varied strongly among the protected and managed stream groups, yet this variation was contingent on the organism group and the beta-diversity measure used. In general, there was much species turnover within both protected and managed stream groups, masking any between-group differences. However, we found a number of redlisted and rare species in our surveys. Of these species, several macrophyte species occurred more frequently in the protected streams. By contrast, rare species of algae and macrophytes did not generally show such inclinations to the protected streams. We found no strong congruence in species richness or community dissimilarity between algae, macrophytes, and macroinvertebrates, suggesting that the main anthropogenic gradient in terms of forestry is not strong enough to modify stream environmental conditions and thereby shape biodiversity in the focal drainage basin. This finding also suggests that surveys of aquatic biodiversity across protected and managed landscapes should not rely too heavily on the surrogate taxon approach, but instead should consider patterns shown by multiple taxonomic groups that represent biologically and ecologically disparate organisms. Our results indeed suggest that the levels of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-diversity show differing among-taxon responses to forest management and naturalness of headwater streams.     

喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉生态区类型与保护地空间分布格局

喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉是泛第三极区域的重要组成部分。对中国与阿富汗、巴基斯坦、印度、尼泊尔、不丹和缅甸等6国交界的喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉地区生态区和保护地分布开展研究。喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉地区总面积902843.76 km²,跨古北界和东洋界两大全球重要的生物地理区域,分布有14个生态区,其中有55处保护地。保护地由国家公园和自然保护区组成,主要分布在东喜马拉雅亚高山针叶林、喜马拉雅亚热带阔叶林和东喜马拉雅阔叶林3个生态区内,面积为159063.30 km²,占喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉地区总面积的17.62%。保护地中有41处国家公园,占保护地总数的74.5%;有25处为多国毗邻,占总数的45.45%。保护地的地理集中指数都大于完全平均分布值（37.796）,空间分布呈集聚状态;其中自然保护区分布的不均衡度高于国家公园,分布在中国,尼泊尔和印度三国境内。核密度分析显示中尼边境与中印边境区域的保护地分布集中度高。20世纪30年代开始,特别是80年代以来各国建立保护地,目前已经形成全球著名的保护地集群带。对于进一步推进喀喇昆仑山-喜马拉雅山脉地区国家公园跨境合作具有重要意义。     

Change in the woody floristic composition,diversity and structure from protected to unprotected savannahs in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve (Benin,West Africa)

Savannahs are widespread vegetation type in Sudanian zone of Africa. As protected areas are often assumed to be the best way to conserve biodiversity, we assessed the effectiveness of the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin, for maintaining savannah woody species composition, diversity and structure. Square plots of 900 m² were randomly established in protected and surrounding unprotected savannahs, and all woody species (dbh ≥ 1 cm) were recorded and identified. Species composition, Importance Value Index, densities, basal area and diversity indexes were assessed in relation to conservation status. The results showed that DCA based on presence/absence species data did not separate clearly protected savannahs from unprotected ones. However, some species were prominent in unprotected savannahs while others showed the same scheme in protected ones. Diversity indexes indicated a good distribution of species in the two savannah types. The woody density showed a higher value in protected than unprotected savannah at shrub layer level. The basal area was significantly higher in the protected savannah than unprotected one at the two woody layer levels. It can be concluded that biodiversity conservation in surrounding unprotected areas should be of great importance to increase biodiversity conservation by protected area whether specific actions were implemented.     

How well are biodiversity drivers reflected in protected areas? A representativeness assessment of the geohistorical gradients that shaped endemic flora in Japan

Protected areas function as a lifeboat that can preserve the origins and maintenance of biodiversity. We assessed the representativeness of biodiversity in existing protected areas in Japan using a distribution dataset and phylogenetic tree for 5565 Japanese vascular plant species. We first examined the overlap of species distribution with the existing protected areas and identified the minimum set representing all plant species. Second, we evaluated the relative importance of environmental variables in explaining the spatial arrangement of protected areas using a random forest model. Finally, we clarified how potential drivers of plant diversity were sufficiently captured within the protected areas network. Although the protected areas captured the majority of species, nearly half of the minimum set areas were selected from outside the existing protected areas. The locations of existing protected areas are mainly associated with geographical and socio-economic factors rather than key biodiversity features (including evolutionary distinctiveness). Moreover, critical biodiversity drivers, which include current climate, paleoclimatic stability, and geographical isolation, were biasedly emulated within the existing protected areas. These findings demonstrate that current conservation planning fails to represent the ecological and evolutionary processes relevant to species sorting, dispersal limitation, and allopatric speciation. In particular, under-representativeness of historically stable habitats that function as evolutionary hotspots or refugia in response to climate changes may pose a threat to the long-term persistence of Japan’s endemic biota. This study provides a fundamental basis for developing prioritization measures to retain species assembly processes and in situ diversification along current climatic and geohistorical gradients.     

Biological quality of running waters in protected areas: the influence of size and land use

There are still substantial questions about whether protected areas affect the quality and biodiversity of surface waters within their borders. In this study, the size and land use of 19 protected areas of Latium Region (central Italy) were related to the biological quality of 32 streams running inside them. Additionally, the biological quality of 18 out of the 32 streams was compared with the quality recorded on the same streams outside the boundaries of the protected areas. The biological quality was assessed using the Extended Biotic Index, which indicates the macroinvertebrate community health. The quality of 32 study streams running through the protected areas was not related to the size of these areas, but it did reflect land use. On average, the 18 study sites inside protected areas had biological quality similar to external control sites. In the protected areas, the biological quality of streams was higher than for the same streams in the surrounding territory provided that anthropogenic changes were fewer. These data indicate that the creation of protected areas per se does not increase freshwater biodiversity and that land use has a major impact on the biological quality of the stream in a protected area. As a consequence, a higher number of reserves or landscape designations specifically created for aquatic conservation is necessary and recovery programs aimed at restoring physical habitats and reducing sources of impact to aquatic life have to be pursued. Also, where the anthropogenic impact is high (e.g., as in the case of strongly urbanised areas), the creation of effective protected areas might improve the biological quality of water courses.