Pre-Darwinian Taxonomy and Essentialism – A Reply to MaryWinsor

Mary Winsor (2003) argues against the received view that pre-Darwinian taxonomy was characterized mainly by essentialism. She argues, instead, that the methods of pre-Darwinian taxonomists, in spite of whatever their beliefs, were that of clusterists, so that the received view, propagated mainly by certain modern biologists and philosophers of biology, should at last be put to rest as a myth. I argue that shes right when it comes to higher taxa, but wrong when it comes the most important category of all, the species category.     

Coming to Terms with the Concept of Moving Species Threatened by Climate Change – A Systematic Review of the Terminology and Definitions

Intentional moving of species threatened by climate change is actively being discussed as a conservation approach. The debate, empirical studies, and policy development, however, are impeded by an inconsistent articulation of the idea. The discrepancy is demonstrated by the varying use of terms, such as assisted migration, assisted colonisation, or managed relocation, and their multiple definitions. Since this conservation approach is novel, and may for instance lead to legislative changes, it is important to aim for terminological consistency. The objective of this study is to analyse the suitability of terms and definitions used when discussing the moving of organisms as a response to climate change. An extensive literature search and review of the material (868 scientific publications) was conducted for finding hitherto used terms (N = 40) and definitions (N = 75), and these were analysed for their suitability. Based on the findings, it is argued that an appropriate term for a conservation approach relating to aiding the movement of organisms harmed by climate change is assisted migration defined as follows: Assisted migration means safeguarding biological diversity through the translocation of representatives of a species or population harmed by climate change to an area outside the indigenous range of that unit where it would be predicted to move as climate changes, were it not for anthropogenic dispersal barriers or lack of time. The differences between assisted migration and other conservation translocations are also discussed. A wide adoption of the clear and distinctive term and definition provided would allow more focused research on the topic and enable consistent implementation as practitioners could have the same understanding of the concept.     

Selected Species of the Genus Phellinus – Chemical Composition,Biological Activity,and Medicinal Applications

This study presents the current knowledge on chemical composition, biological activity, and possible medicinal applications of Phellinus igniarius, Phellinus pini, Phellinus pomaceus, and Phellinus robustus. These inedible arboreal species are phytopathogens that cause the enzymatic decomposition of wood. These species belong to the medicinal mushrooms and have been known for centuries in the traditional medicine of the Far East. They have been used as an effective remedy for stomach and intestinal ailments, diarrhea, and hemorrhages. Mycochemical studies have proved the presence of polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and terpenoids. These compounds show biological activities such as anticancer, antioxidant, antiangiogenic, and antiviral. Research studies conducted using modern analytical methods have advanced the knowledge on the potential therapeutic use of compounds isolated not only from the fruiting bodies but also from biomass obtained with in vitro biotechnological methods.     

A New Deep-Sea Species of Chaetognaths,Eukrohnia geptneri,from the Northwestern Pacific—A Supposed Ancestor of the Antarctic Species Eukrohnia bathyantarctica

A new deep-sea species of chaetognaths, Eukrohnia geptneri, from the Northwestern Pacific is described; the young were registered in the epipelagic zone, while the adult specimens were found in deep depths of the Japanese Depression. Morphologically, this species is close to E. bathyantarctic; however, it differs from the latter in a series of characteristics. The diagnosis of the new species, drawings, and identification keys for the world fauna of the genus Eukrohniaare presented. A hypothesis is proposed on the origin of bathypelagic species inhabiting Antarctic waters, the chaetognath Eukrohnia bathyantarcticaDavid, 1958, from the species E. geptnerisp. nov.     

A Sea Under Siege – Alien Species in the Mediterranean

Exotic macrophytes, invertebrates and fish are found in most coastal habitats in the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea has been subjected to introductions of non-indigenous species by ship traffic since the opening of interoceanic maritime routes five centuries ago. The Sea, a hub of shipping, is exceptionally susceptible to invaders that arrive in fouling communities or ballast. The Suez Canal has been the largest pathway for the entry of these species: more than 300 Erythrean species – principally molluscs, fish, decapod crustaceans, polychaetes and algae – have become established in the eastern Mediterranean, primarily along the Levantine coasts. Mariculture of nonindigenous shellfish predominates in the northern Mediterranean lagoonar environments. Unrestricted transport of commercially important exotic shellfish has resulted in numerous unintentional introductions of pathogens, parasites and pest species. Some invaders have outcompeted or replaced native species locally, severely reducing biodiversity; some other invaders are so abundant they are exploited commercially. The rate of these biotic invasions has increased in recent decades, and they collectively have significant ecological and economic impacts in the Mediterranean Sea. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Questions and answers to edibility problem of the Canavalia ensiformis seeds – A review

The seed of Canavalia ensiformis (jackbean), a highly productive large-seeded tropical legume, contains about 300 g crude protein and 600 g carbohydrates kg⁻¹ dry matter. It, however, contains toxic and antinutritional factors which limit its use as human food or animal feed. The trypsin inhibitors in the seed have, however, been reported to be easily inactivated by moist heat. The toxic alkaline non-protein amino acid, canavanine (present at about 50 g kg⁻¹ seed dry matter), a naturally occuring analog of l-arginine, has also been reported to induce reduced feed intake in non-ruminants but at the equivalent of about 300 g kg⁻¹ dietary level of the raw seed, or in the condition of dietary arginine deficiency. The concentrations of the specialized secondary plant biomolecules – cyanogenic glycosides, saponins, alkaloids and terpenoids – have also been shown to drop below detectable levels following 1 h of cooking. Urease and canatoxin which were isolated from the seed are highly toxic if injected into experimental animals but exert no toxic effects if orally administered, and thus cannot be classified as antinutritional factors. Concanavalin A (Con A), the most studied of plant lectins, appears to be the most important toxic and antinutritional factor in the seed, being highly resistant to heat treatments and to proteolytic digestion in the gut. It requires 3 h of cooking at 96°C or 45 min of pressure cooking; 48 h of soaking the seed in water prior to cooking for 2 h; 72 h of soaking in water prior to ordinary cooking for 1 h; pressure-cooking for 15 min, to completely eliminate it from the seed. Complete inactivation of Con A in the seed can, however, be easily achieved if the seed is broken into pieces and cooked for 1 h or pressure-cooked for 15 min.     

Changes in the Range of Some Common Rocky Shore Species in Britain – A Response to Climate Change?

Since the 1990s there has been a period of rapid climate warming in Europe. Long-term broad scale datasets coupled with time series at specific locations for rocky intertidal species dating back to the 1950s have been collected in Britain and Ireland. Resurveys of the original locations in 2001–2003 have been undertaken to identify changes in the biogeographical range and abundance of these species. The results show that some ‘southern’ species including Osilinus lineatus da Costa and Gibbula umbilicalis da Costa have undergone north and north-eastern range extensions. Populations have increased in abundance and adult size has decreased since the previous surveys were conducted. These changes have been synchronous throughout Britain, strongly suggesting that climate is responsible. The use of intertidal species as indicators of climate change is proposed.     

From Desirable Ornamental Plant to Pest to Accepted Addition to the Flora? – the Perception of an Alien Tree Species Through the Centuries

Prunus serotina, a forest tree of North American origin, was introduced to central Europe and planted for various purposes. In the course of the centuries it was regarded as a valuable timber tree by European foresters; subsequently, as a useful non-timber species in forestry, a forest pest, a controllable weed and, eventually, as a species we have to live with. All these perceived qualities served as motives for action by humans without seeking scientific evidence for them: millions of specimens of P. serotina were planted, later millions of euros were spent in attempts at control. The species, and its changing perception through time, may be an example of the need for science-based assessments as a basis for developing policies concerning non-native plants. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Political Systems Affect Mobile and Sessile Species Diversity – A Legacy from the Post-WWII Period

Political ideologies, policies and economy affect land use which in turn may affect biodiversity patterns and future conservation targets. However, few studies have investigated biodiversity in landscapes with similar physical properties but governed by different political systems. Here we investigate land use and biodiversity patterns, and number and composition of birds and plants, in the borderland of Austria, Slovenia and Hungary. It is a physically uniform landscape but managed differently during the last 70 years as a consequence of the political “map” of Europe after World War I and II. We used a historical map from 1910 and satellite data to delineate land use within three 10-kilometre transects starting from the point where the three countries meet. There was a clear difference between countries detectable in current biodiversity patterns, which relates to land use history. Mobile species richness was associated with current land use whereas diversity of sessile species was more associated with past land use. Heterogeneous landscapes were positively and forest cover was negatively correlated to bird species richness. Our results provide insights into why landscape history is important to understand present and future biodiversity patterns, which is crucial for designing policies and conservation strategies across the world.     

A Delicate Adjustment: Wallace and Bates on the Amazon and “The Problem of the Origin of Species”

For over a century it has been believed that Alfred Russel Wallace and Henry Walter Bates set out for the Amazon in 1848 with the aim of “solving the problem of the origin of species”. Yet this enticing story is based on only one sentence. Bates claimed in the preface to his 1863 book that Wallace stated this was the aim of their expedition in an 1847 letter. Bates gave a quotation from the letter. But Wallace himself never endorsed or repeated this story. Many writers have acknowledged that this letter still survives. Yet the wording is different from that quoted by Bates and the letter says nothing of an expedition. It is argued that the sentence given by Bates is not a genuine quotation from this or any other Wallace letter but was modified by Bates to promote his own reputation. More significantly, this leads to the conclusion that there was a very sudden and dramatic shift in the way species were thought of and discussed after Darwin’s Origin of species appeared. Something called “the problem of the origin of species” (and similar variants) never occurred before Darwin’s book but exploded in frequency immediately after it. A profound change in how species origins were discussed happened which no one seemed to notice.     

The Creativity of Natural Selection? Part I: Darwin,Darwinism, and the Mutationists

This is the first of a two-part essay on the history of debates concerning the creativity of natural selection, from Darwin through the evolutionary synthesis and up to the present. Here I focus on the mid-late nineteenth century to the early twentieth, with special emphasis on early Darwinism and its critics, the self-styled “mutationists.” The second part focuses on the evolutionary synthesis and some of its critics, especially the “neutralists” and “neo-mutationists.” Like Stephen Gould, I consider the creativity of natural selection to be a key component of what has traditionally counted as “Darwinism.” I argue that the creativity of natural selection is best understood in terms of (1) selection initiating evolutionary change, and (2) selection being responsible for the presence of the variation it acts upon, for example by directing the course of variation. I consider the respects in which both of these claims sound non-Darwinian, even though they have long been understood by supporters and critics alike to be virtually constitutive of Darwinism.