Effects of hyperthermia on fetal breathing movements

High environmental temperature is known to impair fetal growth and development. We now report long lasting changes in fetal breathing activity following the exposure of pregnant ewes to an ambient temperature of 43 degrees C for 8 h. In 16 trials in 10 ewes (119-138 days gestation) heat exposure increased maternal and fetal core temperatures 1.5-2.0 degrees C, and the hyperventilation by the ewe produced a fall in fetal PaCO2 from 53.5 +/- 1.3 to 34.8 +/- 5.3 mmHg (P less than 0.05). Fetal breathing movements decreased in incidence during the hyperthermia but remained episodic (present during low-voltage electrocortical activity) with occasional brief episodes of breathing at high rates (greater than 4 breaths/s). However, 1-2 h after the end of heating, when maternal and fetal core temperature and PaCO2 had returned to normal, fetal breathing movements became continuous, and were augmented 30-100% in amplitude. Fetal breathing movements occurred during both low- and high-voltage electrocortical activity. The results show that a heat load similar to that experienced by sheep in sub-tropical regions in the summer months cause prolonged changes in the central regulation of fetal breathing.     

Effect of beta-endorphin on fetal breathing movements in sheep

It has been suggested that endogenous opioids, such as beta-endorphin (beta-EP), act to depress respiration in the fetus and newborn. We have investigated the effect of infusing beta-EP either intravenously or into a lateral cerebral ventricle on breathing movements and electrocortical activity in eight fetal lambs between 116 and 133 days gestation. Intravenous infusion of beta-EP (200 or 500 micrograms over 1 h) increased plasma beta-EP concentrations 2- to 230-fold and was associated with a small decrease in the percent time spent breathing, from 57.8 +/- 9.1 to 51.3 +/- 8.2%/h (n = 6 exp). There was no change in the amount of high- or low-voltage electrocortical activity. Intracerebroventricular beta-EP infusion (1 or 2 micrograms beta-EP/min for 120 min) was not associated with any change of breathing movements (n = 5 exp) during the period of the infusion. However, in four experiments, in the 6-h period after the end of the beta-EP infusion there were episodes of 2-4 h when the percent time per hour spent breathing exceeded 70%. Electrocortical activity increased in amplitude and distinct episodes of high- and low-voltage activity were sometimes lost in these experiments. We conclude that high concentrations of beta-EP in plasma or cerebrospinal fluid do not totally suppress fetal breathing directly in the fetal lamb.     

Almitrine inhibits breathing movements in fetal sheep in utero

Whilst hypoxia stimulates fetal peripheral chemoreceptors, fetal breathing movements do not increase as hypoxia also has central effects. We wondered whether specific stimulation of the arterial chemoreceptors by almitrine would produce a stimulation of fetal breathing movements. When almitrine was given to 5 intact and 3 peripherally-chemodenervated fetal sheep in utero, fetal breathing movements rapidly ceased for 1-12 h. There was also a decrease in the amount of time spent in low voltage electrocortical activity. The effects of almitrine are therefore similar to those of hypoxia, and are independent of the peripheral chemoreceptors. Thus it may be a valuable tool in the study of the control of fetal breathing.     

The central effects of morphine on fetal breathing movements in the fetal sheep

The fetal respiratory and electrocortical effects of 0.6 microgram to 600 micrograms of morphine, administered into the lateral cerebral ventricle, have been studied in chronically catheterised, unanaesthetized fetal sheep at 115-135 days gestation. Morphine at 0.6 microgram had no effect on breathing movements or electrocorticographic activity, and at 6 micrograms induced a period of apnoea (43-122 min) but had no effect on electrocortical activity. Intravenous naloxone (2 mg bolus and infusion of 2 mg/kg/h for 2 h) to the fetus had no effect on this apnoea. Morphine at 60 micrograms induced an initial period of apnoea (30-65 min) followed by episodic but significantly deep breathing movements with no effect on electrocortical activity and at 600 micrograms induced an initial period of apnoea (22-95 min) which was followed by deep, irregular and continuous (126-302 min) breathing movements. During the apnoea electrocortical activity initially remained cyclic, but as apnoea progressed there was a gradual reduction in the voltage of the electrocorticogram to a low voltage state. Intravenous naloxone (2 mg bolus and infusion of 2 mg/kg/h for 2 h) reversed both the respiratory and electrocortical effects. The hyperventilation was also inhibited by hypoxia. Naloxone alone had no effect on fetal breathing activity.     

Ultrasound measurements of fetal breathing movements in the rat.

The goal of this study was to determine when fetal breathing movements (FBMs) commence in the rat and to characterize age-dependent changes of FBMs in utero. These data provide a frame of reference for parallel in vitro studies of the cellular, synaptic, and network properties of the perinatal rat respiratory system. Ultrasound recordings were made from unanesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats from embryonic (E) day 15 (E15) to E20. Furthermore, the effects of respiratory stimulants (doxapram and aminophylline) and hypoxia on FBMs were studied. Single FBMs, occurring at a very low frequency (approximately 8 FBMs/h), commenced at E16. The incidence of single FBMs increased to approximately 80 FBMs/h by E20. Episodes of clustered rhythmic FBMs were first observed at E18 (approximately 40 FBMs/h). The incidence of episodic clustered FBMs increased to approximately 300 FMBs/h by E20, with the duration of each episode ranging from approximately 40 to 180 s. Doxapram, presumably acting to stimulate carotid body receptors, did not increase FBMs until E20, when the incidence of episodic clustered FBMs increased twofold. Aminophylline, a central-acting stimulant, caused an increase in episodic clustered FBMs after E17, reaching significance at E20 (3-fold increase). Exposing the dam to 10% O(2) caused a rapid, marked suppression of FBMs (5-fold decrease) that was readily reversed on exposure to room air.     

Denervation of peripheral chemoreceptors decreases breathing movements in fetal sheep

The role of the peripheral chemoreceptors in the control of fetal breathing movements has not been fully defined. To determine whether denervation of the peripheral chemoreceptors affects fetal breathing movements, we studied 14 chronically catheterized fetal sheep from 120 to 138 days of gestation. In seven fetuses the chemoreceptors were denervated by bilateral section of the vagus and carotid sinus nerves; in seven others, sham operations were performed. We compared several variables during two study periods: 0-5 and 6-13 days after operation. In the denervated fetuses there were significant decreases in the incidence and amplitude of fetal breathing movements during both study periods. There were no differences between the two groups in incidence of low-voltage electrocortical activity, arterial pH and blood gas tensions, fetal heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure, or duration of survival after operation or birth weight. We conclude that denervation of the peripheral chemoreceptors decreases fetal breathing movements. These results indicate that the peripheral chemoreceptors are active during fetal life and participate in the control of fetal breathing movements.     

Regulation of breathing movements in fetal sheep by prostaglandin E2

In fetal sheep, plasma prostaglandin (PG) E2 concentrations are high, and fetal breathing movements (FBM) occur intermittently, primarily during low-voltage fast electrocortical activity (LVFA). There is evidence suggesting that prostaglandins, specifically PGE2, may regulate FBM. To define the physiological role of PGE2 in regulation of FBM, we infused meclofenamate (0.9 mg X kg-1 X h-1), a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor, into six fetal sheep to suppress endogenous prostaglandin production. Afterward, PGE2 was added in mean doses of 9, 18, 36, and 90 ng X kg-1 X min-1. Meclofenamate decreased PGE2 concentrations and increased FBM, especially during high-voltage slow electrocortical activity (HVSA). Addition of PGE2 reversed the effects of meclofenamate, increasing PGE2 concentrations and decreasing FBM, especially during HVSA. The response to PGE2 was dose dependent; the overall incidence of FBM and incidences of FBM during HVSA and LVFA were inversely correlated with both the infused PGE2 dose and the mean PGE2 concentration. At higher doses of PGE2, FBM occurred intermittently and only during LVFA; thus PGE2 infusion restored the physiological pattern of FBM. These results indicate that PGE2 regulates FBM by inhibiting FBM during HVSA.     

Effects of meclofenamate on breathing movements in fetal sheep before delivery

There is evidence that prostaglandins (PG), specifically PGE2, participate in the regulation of fetal breathing movements (FBM). During late gestation, when FBM occur intermittently and primarily during low-voltage electrocortical activity, the concentration of PGE2 in fetal plasma ([PGE2]) is high. During the days before delivery [PGE2] increases and FBM decrease. To determine whether the increase in [PGE2] is responsible for the concurrent decrease in FBM, we infused the prostaglandin synthase inhibitor, meclofenamate (0.7 mg.kg-1.h-1), into eight fetal sheep continuously for 5-13 days before delivery; five control fetuses received a continuous infusion of the solvent for 5-11 days before delivery. Compared with control infusion, meclofenamate caused a significant decrease in [PGE 2] until the day of delivery and a significant increase in FBM [overall and during high-voltage electrocortical activity (HVA)] until 2 days before delivery. Although there were significant correlations between [PGE2] and FBM (overall and during HVA), both groups showed similar decreases in FBM during the 2 days before delivery. We conclude that the decrease in FBM before delivery is not dependent on the concurrent increase in [PGE2].     

Effects of maternal indomethacin administration on fetal breathing movements in sheep

To determine the role of prostaglandins in the control of fetal breathing movements, we infused indomethacin (5 mg/ml; 25 mg/kg per day) into the maternal femoral vein for 70 h in 5 pregnant ewes. There was a significant increase in the incidence and amplitude of fetal breathing movements beginning within 2 h reaching a peak at 8-10 h. It then diminished and was no longer present by 20-70 h despite continued indomethacin infusion. Maternal glucose concentrations were increased at 8 and 16 h following the initiation of indomethacin infusion. The data suggested that the previously reported effects of cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor on fetal breathing movements are transient and do not continue beyond 20 h.     

Combined one- and two-dimensional ultrasound system for monitoring fetal breathing movements.

A combined one- and two-dimensional ultrasonic system for monitoring respiratory movements in the human fetus has been developed. A real-time cross-sectional image of the fetal chest at the level of the fetal heart can be obtained, and a time motion recording of fetal respiratory movements can then be written on a strip-chart recorder. Combining the features of one-dimensional and two-dimensional systems produces an accurate means of investigating fetal breathing movements.     

Stimulation of breathing movements in fetal sheep by inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis

We studied the effects of inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis on fetal breathing movements on 17 occasions in 11 lambs (gestational age 125-141 days). We gave 12 h infusions of sodium mechlofenamate (8.6-22.2 mg.kg-1) in 13 studies and indomethacin (21.8-38.8 mg.kg-1) in four studies. Results were similar with both agents and did not correlate with drug dosage. There were no changes in fetal arterial blood pressure, pH or blood gas tensions. We assessed fetal breathing movements by measurements of tracheal pressure for a control period of 224 h prior to and 208 h during the infusion of inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis; their administration caused a marked stimulation of fetal breathing movements judged from the following four variables: (1) incidence of fetal breathing movements increased from 38.4 to 69.2% of the time (P < 0.001); (2) average amplitude of change in tracheal pressure during fetal breathing movements increased from 4.1 to 6.0 torr (P < 0.01); (3) maximal amplitude of change in tracheal pressure during fetal breathing movements increased from 8.8 to 13.4 torr (P < 0.01); and (4) the duration of the longest continuous episode of fetal breathing movements increased from 37 to 229 min (P < 0.05). Two fetuses had electrocorticogram (ECoG) recordings. In control periods, fetal breathing movements occurred only during low voltage, high frequency ECoG activity; however, during infusions of inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis, fetal breathing movements occurred also during high voltage, low frequency ECoG activity. We conclude that inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis stimulate fetal breathing movement in fetal sheep. These results suggest that a component of the prostaglandin system is a factor which inhibits breathing movements during fetal life.     

Effect of cigarette smoking on fetal breathing movements in normal pregnancies.

In 18 women with uncomplicated pregnancies smoking two cigarettes significantly reduced the proportion of the time that fetal breathing movements were present.     

Effects of naloxone on breathing movements during hypercapnia in the fetal lamb

To determine whether endogenous opioids influence the fetal breathing response to CO2 we have investigated the effect of the opiate antagonist, naloxone on the incidence, rate, and amplitude of breathing movements during hypercapnia in fetal lambs in utero. In 20 experiments in six pregnant sheep (130-145 days gestation) hypercapnia was induced by giving the ewe 4-6% CO2-18% O2 in N2 to breathe for 60 min. After 30 min of hypercapnia either naloxone (13 experiments) or saline (7 experiments) was infused intravenously for the remaining 30 min. During hypercapnia breath amplitude increased from 5.8 +/- 0.5 to 9.1 +/- 1.2 mmHg (P less than 0.001), and infusion of naloxone was associated with a further significant increase to 15.7 +/- 1.2 mmHg (P less than 0.001). Naloxone had no effect on the incidence or rate of breathing movements during hypercapnia. After hypercapnia there was a significant decrease in the incidence of fetal breathing movements in the naloxone group (14.7 +/- 3.2%). Infusion of saline during hypercapnia had no effect on incidence, rate, or amplitude of fetal breathing movements. These results suggest that endogenous opioids act to suppress or limit breath amplitude during hypercapnia but do not affect rate or incidence of breathing movements.     

The effects of raising intracranial pressure on breathing movements, eye movements and electrocortical activity in fetal sheep

Extra-dural or cerebroventricular intracranial pressure was measured in 7 unanaesthetized fetal sheep (123-137 days gestation). Basal intracranial pressure was 6.7 +/- 1.7 mmHg, but there were many transient increases of pressure in association with spontaneous changes of amniotic pressure, fetal intrathoracic pressure, and particularly when the fetal nuchal muscles were active. These spontaneous increases of intracranial pressure were often associated with cessation of breathing movements and change of the electrocorticogram from low to high voltage activity. To test whether increased intracranial pressure influenced breathing movements and electrocortical activity, intracranial pressure was raised either by occluding the superior vena cava for 1 min with an implanted extravascular cuff, or by extra-dural injection of 0.3-1.0 ml of 0.9% NaCl. Increasing the intracranial pressure 5-15 mmHg by either method during low voltage electrocortical activity caused cessation of breathing movements, electro-ocular activity, and change of the electrocorticogram from low to high voltage in a significant proportion of trials. We propose that natural fluctuations of intracranial pressure caused by compression of the fetal body or skull, by body movements or by uterine activity, may cause changes in electrocortical activity and breathing movements.     

Effects of increased core temperature on breathing movements and electrocortical activity in fetal sheep

Core temperature of fetal sheep was raised by perfusing warm water through a loop implanted into the abdomen, or into the stomach via the oesophagus. Raising fetal temperature by 0.8-2 degrees C was associated with an increase in amplitude and incidence of breathing movements, and an increase in the proportion of breathing movements that occurred during high voltage electrocortical (ECoG) activity. Fetal hyperthermia was maintained for 8 h, but the augmentation of breathing movements did not last for more than 2-3 h. The results indicate that changes of maternal temperature caused by hot weather, exercise, fever, and possibly diurnal changes of body temperature could alter the amplitude and pattern of fetal breathing movements.