Multiple solvent crystal structures of ribonuclease A: An assessment of the method

The multiple solvent crystal structures (MSCS) method uses organic solvents to map the surfaces of proteins. It identifies binding sites and allows for a more thorough examination of protein plasticity and hydration than could be achieved by a single structure. The crystal structures of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNAse A) soaked in the following organic solvents are presented: 50% dioxane, 50% dimethylformamide, 70% dimethylsulfoxide, 70% 1,6‐hexanediol, 70% isopropanol, 50% R,S,R‐bisfuran alcohol, 70% t‐butanol, 50% trifluoroethanol, or 1.0M trimethylamine‐N‐oxide. This set of structures is compared with four sets of crystal structures of RNAse A from the protein data bank (PDB) and with the solution NMR structure to assess the validity of previously untested assumptions associated with MSCS analysis. Plasticity from MSCS is the same as from PDB structures obtained in the same crystal form and deviates only at crystal contacts when compared to structures from a diverse set of crystal environments. Furthermore, there is a good correlation between plasticity as observed by MSCS and the dynamic regions seen by NMR. Conserved water binding sites are identified by MSCS to be those that are conserved in the sets of structures taken from the PDB. Comparison of the MSCS structures with inhibitor‐bound crystal structures of RNAse A reveals that the organic solvent molecules identify key interactions made by inhibitor molecules, highlighting ligand binding hot‐spots in the active site. The present work firmly establishes the relevance of information obtained by MSCS. Proteins 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Multiple solvent crystal structures: probing binding sites, plasticity and hydration

Multiple solvent crystal structures (MSCS) of porcine pancreatic elastase were used to map the binding surface the enzyme. Crystal structures of elastase in neat acetonitrile, 95% acetone, 55% dimethylformamide, 80% 5-hexene-1,2-diol, 80% isopropanol, 80% ethanol and 40% trifluoroethanol showed that the organic solvent molecules clustered in the active site, were found mostly unclustered in crystal contacts and in general did not bind elsewhere on the surface of elastase. Mixtures of 40% benzene or 40% cyclohexane in 50% isopropanol and 10% water showed no bound benzene or cyclohexane molecules, but did reveal bound isopropanol. The clusters of organic solvent probe molecules coincide with pockets occupied by known inhibitors. MSCS also reveal the areas of plasticity within the elastase binding site and allow for the visualization of a nearly complete first hydration shell. The pattern of organic solvent clusters determined by MSCS for elastase is consistent with patterns for hot spots in protein-ligand interactions determined from database analysis in general. The MSCS method allows probing of hot spots, plasticity and hydration simultaneously, providing a powerful complementary strategy to guide computational methods currently in development for binding site determination, ligand docking and design.     

Proteins in organic solvents

Catalysis in organic solvents and the mapping of protein surfaces using multiple solvent crystal structures are two rapidly developing areas of research. Recent advances include the study of protein folding and stability in different solvents, and the demonstration that it is possible to qualitatively rank the affinities of protein binding sites for a given organic solvent using the multiple solvent crystal structures method.     

DRoP: A Water Analysis Program Identifies Ras-GTP-Specific Pathway of Communication between Membrane-Interacting Regions and the Active Site

Ras GTPase mediates several cellular signal transduction pathways and is found mutated in a large number of cancers. It is active in the GTP-bound state, where it interacts with effector proteins, and at rest in the GDP-bound state. The catalytic domain is tethered to the membrane, with which it interacts in a nucleotide-dependent manner. Here we present the program Detection of Related Solvent Positions (DRoP) for crystallographic water analysis on protein surfaces and use it to study Ras. DRoP reads and superimposes multiple Protein Data Bank coordinates, transfers symmetry-related water molecules to the position closest to the protein surface, and ranks the waters according to how well conserved and tightly clustered they are in the set of structures. Coloring according to this rank allows visualization of the results. The effector-binding region of Ras is hydrated with highly conserved water molecules at the interface between the P-loop, switch I, and switch II, as well as at the Raf-RBD binding pocket. Furthermore, we discovered a new conserved water-mediated H-bonding network present in Ras-GTP, but not in Ras-GDP, that links the nucleotide sensor residues R161 and R164 on helix 5 to the active site. The double mutant RasN85A/N86A, where the final link between helix 5 and the nucleotide is not possible, is a severely impaired enzyme, while the single mutant RasN86A, with partial connection to the active site, has a wild-type hydrolysis rate. DRoP was instrumental in determining the water-mediated connectivity networks that link two lobes of the catalytic domain in Ras.     

Conserved internal hydration motifs in protein kinases

Crystal structures of diverse protein kinase catalytic subunits reveal a number of water molecules whose positions within the protein core are better preserved than amino acid types in many functionally important locations. It remains unknown whether they play any particular role, and whether their removal, disturbing local interaction patterns to no smaller degree than amino acid mutations, can affect kinase stability and function. In this study, we apply an array of computational approaches to characterize hydration of kinase catalytic subunits. First, we systematically screen multiple crystal structures with the use of a simplified hydration model in order to determine the distribution of internal solvent and the degree of its conservation. Second, we analyze water structure, dynamics and binding affinity to buried hydration sites in a number of kinases, also taking into account their variable functional state. We find that a large portion of buried solvent is dynamic, possibly contributing to kinase conformational changes related to the activation process. In turn, binding free energies of some of tightly bound conserved water molecules to different kinases tend to shift in a similar manner following the change of their functional state. This finding highlights the likely specific role of internal solvent in fine tuning local protein plasticity.     

Locating interaction sites on proteins: the crystal structure of thermolysin soaked in 2% to 100% isopropanol

Multiple-solvent crystal structure determination (MSCS) allows the position and orientation of bound solvent fragments to be identified by determining the structure of protein crystals soaked in organic solvents. We have extended this technique by the determination of high-resolution crystal structures of thermolysin (TLN), generated from crystals soaked in 2% to 100% isopropanol. The procedure causes only minor changes to the conformation of the protein, and an increasing number of isopropanol interaction sites could be identified as the solvent concentration is increased. Isopropanol occupies all four of the main subsites in the active site, although this was only observed at very high concentrations of isopropanol for three of the four subsites. Analysis of the isopropanol positions shows little correlation with interaction energy computed using a molecular mechanics force field, but the experimentally determined positions of isopropanol are consistent with the structures of known protein-ligand complexes of TLN.     

Cluster analysis of consensus water sites in thrombin and trypsin shows conservation between serine proteases and contributions to ligand specificity.

Cluster analysis is presented as a technique for analyzing the conservation and chemistry of water sites from independent protein structures, and applied to thrombin, trypsin, and bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) to locate shared water sites, as well as those contributing to specificity. When several protein structures are superimposed, complete linkage cluster analysis provides an objective technique for resolving the continuum of overlaps between water sites into a set of maximally dense microclusters of overlapping water molecules, and also avoids reliance on any one structure as a reference. Water sites were clustered for ten superimposed thrombin structures, three trypsin structures, and four BPTI structures. For thrombin, 19% of the 708 microclusters, representing unique water sites, contained water molecules from at least half of the structures, and 4% contained waters from all 10. For trypsin, 77% of the 106 microclusters contained water sites from at least half of the structures, and 57% contained waters from all three. Water site conservation correlated with several environmental features: highly conserved microclusters generally had more protein atom neighbors, were in a more hydrophilic environment, made more hydrogen bonds to the protein, and were less mobile. There were significant overlaps between thrombin and trypsin conserved water sites, which did not localize to their similar active sites, but were concentrated in buried regions including the solvent channel surrounding the Na+ site in thrombin, which is associated with ligand selectivity. Cluster analysis also identified water sites conserved in thrombin but not trypsin, and vice versa, providing a list of water sites that may contribute to ligand discrimination. Thus, in addition to facilitating the analysis of water sites from multiple structures, cluster analysis provides a useful tool for distinguishing between conserved features within a protein family and those conferring specificity.     

Experimental and computational mapping of the binding surface of a crystalline protein

Multiple Solvent Crystal Structures (MSCS) is a crystallographic technique to identify energetically favorable positions and orientations of small organic molecules on the surface of proteins. We determined the high-resolution crystal structures of thermolysin (TLN), generated from crystals soaked in 50--70% acetone, 50--80% acetonitrile and 50 mM phenol. The structures of the protein in the aqueous-organic mixtures are essentially the same as the native enzyme and a number of solvent interaction sites were identified. The distribution of probe molecules shows clusters in the main specificity pocket of the active site and a buried subsite. Within the active site, we compared the experimentally determined solvent positions with predictions from two computational functional group mapping techniques, GRID and Multiple Copy Simultaneous Search (MCSS). The experimentally determined small molecule positions are consistent with the structures of known protein--ligand complexes of TLN.     

Solvent structure in crystals of trypsin determined by X-ray and neutron diffraction.

The solvent structure in orthorhombic crystals of bovine trypsin has been independently determined by X-ray diffraction to 1.35 A resolution and by neutron diffraction to 2.1 A resolution. A consensus model of the water molecule positions was obtained using oxygen positions identified in the electron density map determined by X-ray diffraction, which were verified by comparison to D2O-H2O difference neutron scattering density. Six of 184 water molecules in the X-ray structure, all with B-factors greater than 50 A2, were found to be spurious after comparison with neutron results. Roughly two-thirds of the water of hydration expected from thermodynamic data for proteins was localized by neutron diffraction; approximately one-half of the water of hydration was located by X-ray diffraction. Polar regions of the protein are well hydrated, and significant D2O-H2O difference density is seen for a small number of water molecules in a second shell of hydration. Hydrogen bond lengths and angles calculated from unconstrained refinement of water positions are distributed about values typically seen in small molecule structures. Solvent models found in seven other bovine trypsin and trypsinogen and rat trypsin structures determined by X-ray diffraction were compared. Internal water molecules are well conserved in all trypsin structures including anionic rat trypsin, which is 65% homologous to bovine trypsin. Of the 22 conserved waters in trypsin, 19 were also found in trypsinogen, suggesting that they are located in regions of the apoprotein that are structurally conserved in the transition to the mature protein. Seven waters were displaced upon activation of trypsinogen. Water structure at crystal contacts is not generally conserved in different crystal forms. Three groups of integral structural water molecules are highly conserved in all solvent structures, including a spline of water molecules inserted between two beta-strands, which may resemble an intermediate in the formation of beta sheets during the folding of a protein.     

FINDSITE-metal: integrating evolutionary information and machine learning for structure-based metal-binding site prediction at the proteome level

The rapid accumulation of gene sequences, many of which are hypothetical proteins with unknown function, has stimulated the development of accurate computational tools for protein function prediction with evolution/structure‐based approaches showing considerable promise. In this article, we present FINDSITE‐metal, a new threading‐based method designed specifically to detect metal‐binding sites in modeled protein structures. Comprehensive benchmarks using different quality protein structures show that weakly homologous protein models provide sufficient structural information for quite accurate annotation by FINDSITE‐metal. Combining structure/evolutionary information with machine learning results in highly accurate metal‐binding annotations; for protein models constructed by TASSER, whose average Cα RMSD from the native structure is 8.9 Å, 59.5% (71.9%) of the best of top five predicted metal locations are within 4 Å (8 Å) from a bound metal in the crystal structure. For most of the targets, multiple metal‐binding sites are detected with the best predicted binding site at rank 1 and within the top two ranks in 65.6% and 83.1% of the cases, respectively. Furthermore, for iron, copper, zinc, calcium, and magnesium ions, the binding metal can be predicted with high, typically 70% to 90%, accuracy. FINDSITE‐metal also provides a set of confidence indexes that help assess the reliability of predictions. Finally, we describe the proteome‐wide application of FINDSITE‐metal that quantifies the metal‐binding complement of the human proteome. FINDSITE‐metal is freely available to the academic community at http://cssb.biology.gatech.edu/findsite‐metal/ . Proteins 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Exploring structurally conserved solvent sites in protein families

Protein-bound water molecules are important components of protein structure, and therefore, protein function and energetics. Although structural conservation of solvent has been studied in a few protein families, a lack of suitable computational tools has hindered more comprehensive analyses. Herein we present a semiautomated computational approach for identifying solvent sites that are conserved among proteins sharing a common three-dimensional structure. This method is tested on six protein families: (1) monodomain cytochrome c, (2) fatty-acid binding protein, (3) lactate/malate dehydrogenase, (4) parvalbumin, (5) phospholipase A2, and (6) serine protease. For each family, the method successfully identified previously known conserved solvent sites. Moreover, the method discovered 22 novel conserved solvent sites, some of which have higher degrees of conservation than the previously known sites. All six families studied had solvent sites with more than 90% conservation and these sites were invariably located in regions of the protein with very high sequence conservation. These results suggest that highly conserved solvent sites, by virtue of their proximity to conserved residues, should be considered as one of the defining three-dimensional structural characteristics of protein families and folds.     

Buried water molecules in helical transmembrane proteins

Buried water molecules (having no contact with bulk solvent) in 30 helical transmembrane (TM) protein structures were identified. The average amount of buried water in helical TM proteins is about the same as for all water-soluble (WS) proteins, but it is greater than the average for helical WS proteins. Buried waters in TM proteins make more polar contacts, and are more frequently found contacting helices than in WS proteins. The distribution of the buried water binding sites across the membrane profile shows that the sites to some extent reflect protein function. There is also evidence for asymmetry of the sites, with more in the extracellular half of the membrane. Many of the buried water contact sites are conserved across families of proteins, including family members having different functions. This suggests that at least some buried waters play a role in structural stabilization. Disease-causing mutations, which are known to result in misfolded TM proteins, occur at buried water contact sites at a higher than random frequency, which also supports a stabilizing role for buried water molecules.     

Solution structure and interdomain interactions of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae "TATA binding protein" (TBP) probed by radiolytic protein footprinting

Although atomic-resolution crystal structures of the conserved C-terminal domain of several species of TBP and their complexes with DNA have been determined, little information is available concerning the structure in solution of full-length TBP containing both the conserved C-terminal and nonconserved N-terminal domains. Quantitation of the amino acid side chain oxidation products generated by synchrotron X-ray radiolysis by mass spectrometry has been used to determine the solvent accessibility of individual residues in monomeric Saccharomyces cerevisiae TATA binding protein (TBP) free in solution and in the TBP-DNA complex. Amino acid side chains within the C-terminal domain of unliganded full-length TBP that are predicted to be accessible from crystal structures of the isolated domain are protected from oxidation. Residues within the N-terminal domain are also protected from oxidation in both the absence and presence of DNA. Some residues within the DNA-binding "saddle" of the C-terminal domain are protected upon formation of a TBP-DNA complex as expected, while others are protected in both the absence and presence of bound DNA. In addition, residues on the upper side of the beta-sheets undergo reactivity changes as a function of DNA binding. These data suggest that the DNA-binding saddle of monomeric unliganded yeast TBP is only partially accessible to solvent, the N-terminal domain is partially structured, and the N- and C-terminal domains form a different set of contacts in the free and DNA-bound protein. The functional implications of these results are discussed.     

A pseudo-particle approach for studying protein-ligand models truncated to their active sites

A molecular dynamics method has been developed to describe the structural and dynamic properties of protein-ligand complexes that are truncated to their active sites. The active site is comprised of the ligand and discontinuous, positionally unrestrained peptide chains. This truncated active-site complex is surrounded by big unspecific pseudo-particles representing the complete protein and the solvent. Thus, knowledge of the folding of the outer parts of the protein is not required, and the method can be applied to protein models, derived from homology modeling. The method has been tested using ligand complexes of adenylate kinase, retinol binding protein, HIV-1 protease, and human leucocyte antigen. Comparisons with their crystal structures and with results from time-demanding simulations of the whole complexes in explicit water solvent show that the ligand binding properties are conserved. Most of the hydrogen bonds between the ligand and the active-site residues are reproduced and, furthermore, the simulation time is reduced. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Continuum electrostatic analysis of preferred solvation sites around proteins in solution

To understand water-protein interactions in solution, the electrostatic field is calculated by solving the Poisson-Boltzmann equation, and the free energy surface of water is mapped by translating and rotating an explicit water molecule around the protein. The calculation is applied to T4 lysozyme with data available on the conservation of solvent binding sites in 18 crystallographically independent molecules. The free energy maps around the ordered water sites provide information on the relationship between water positions in crystal structure and in solution. Results show that almost all conserved sites and the majority of nonconserved sites are within 1.3 A of local free energy minima. This finding is in sharp contrast to the behavior of randomly placed water molecules in the boundary layer, which, on the average, must travel more than 3 A to the nearest free energy minimum. Thus, the solvation sites are at least partially determined by protein-water interactions rather than by crystal packing alone. The characteristic water residence times, obtained from the free energies at the local minima, are in good agreement with nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. Only about half of the potential sites show up as ordered water in the 1.7 A resolution X-ray structure. Crystal packing interactions can stabilize weak or mobile potential sites (in fact, some ordered water positions are not close to free energy minima) or can prevent water from occupying certain sites. Apart from a few buried water molecules that are strong binders, the free energies are not very different for conserved and nonconserved sites. We show that conservation of a water site between two crystals occurs if the positions of protein atoms, primarily contributing to the free energy at the local minimum, do not substantially change from one structure to the other. This requirement can be correlated with the nature of the side chain contacting the water molecule in the site.     

A method for localizing ligand binding pockets in protein structures

The accurate identification of ligand binding sites in protein structures can be valuable in determining protein function. Once the binding site is known, it becomes easier to perform in silico and experimental procedures that may allow the ligand type and the protein function to be determined. For example, binding pocket shape analysis relies heavily on the correct localization of the ligand binding site. We have developed SURFNET-ConSurf, a modular, two-stage method for identifying the location and shape of potential ligand binding pockets in protein structures. In the first stage, the SURFNET program identifies clefts in the protein surface that are potential binding sites. In the second stage, these clefts are trimmed in size by cutting away regions distant from highly conserved residues, as defined by the ConSurf-HSSP database. The largest clefts that remain tend to be those where ligands bind. To test the approach, we analyzed a nonredundant set of 244 protein structures from the PDB and found that SURFNET-ConSurf identifies a ligand binding pocket in 75% of them. The trimming procedure reduces the original cleft volumes by 30% on average, while still encompassing an average 87% of the ligand volume. From the analysis of the results we conclude that for those cases in which the ligands are found in large, highly conserved clefts, the combined SURFNET-ConSurf method gives pockets that are a better match to the ligand shape and location. We also show that this approach works better for enzymes than for nonenzyme proteins.     

Protein function annotation by local binding site surface similarity

Hundreds of protein crystal structures exist for proteins whose function cannot be confidently determined from sequence similarity. Surflex‐PSIM, a previously reported surface‐based protein similarity algorithm, provides an alternative method for hypothesizing function for such proteins. The method now supports fully automatic binding site detection and is fast enough to screen comprehensive databases of protein binding sites. The binding site detection methodology was validated on apo/holo cognate protein pairs, correctly identifying 91% of ligand binding sites in holo structures and 88% in apo structures where corresponding sites existed. For correctly detected apo binding sites, the cognate holo site was the most similar binding site 87% of the time. PSIM was used to screen a set of proteins that had poorly characterized functions at the time of crystallization, but were later biochemically annotated. Using a fully automated protocol, this set of 8 proteins was screened against ～60,000 ligand binding sites from the PDB. PSIM correctly identified functional matches that predated query protein biochemical annotation for five out of the eight query proteins. A panel of 12 currently unannotated proteins was also screened, resulting in a large number of statistically significant binding site matches, some of which suggest likely functions for the podorly characterized proteins. Proteins 2014; 82:679–694. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Identification of substrate binding sites in enzymes by computational solvent mapping

Enzyme structures determined in organic solvents show that most organic molecules cluster in the active site, delineating the binding pocket. We have developed algorithms to perform solvent mapping computationally, rather than experimentally, by placing molecular probes (small molecules or functional groups) on a protein surface, and finding the regions with the most favorable binding free energy. The method then finds the consensus site that binds the highest number of different probes. The probe-protein interactions at this site are compared to the intermolecular interactions seen in the known complexes of the enzyme with various ligands (substrate analogs, products, and inhibitors). We have mapped thermolysin, for which experimental mapping results are also available, and six further enzymes that have no experimental mapping data, but whose binding sites are well characterized. With the exception of haloalkane dehalogenase, which binds very small substrates in a narrow channel, the consensus site found by the mapping is always a major subsite of the substrate-binding site. Furthermore, the probes at this location form hydrogen bonds and non-bonded interactions with the same residues that interact with the specific ligands of the enzyme. Thus, once the structure of an enzyme is known, computational solvent mapping can provide detailed and reliable information on its substrate-binding site. Calculations on ligand-bound and apo structures of enzymes show that the mapping results are not very sensitive to moderate variations in the protein coordinates.     

Small-world network approach to identify key residues in protein-protein interaction

We show that protein complexes can be represented as small-world networks, exhibiting a relatively small number of highly central amino-acid residues occurring frequently at protein-protein interfaces. We further base our analysis on a set of different biological examples of protein-protein interactions with experimentally validated hot spots, and show that 83% of these predicted highly central residues, which are conserved in sequence alignments and nonexposed to the solvent in the protein complex, correspond to or are in direct contact with an experimentally annotated hot spot. The remaining 17% show a general tendency to be close to an annotated hot spot. On the other hand, although there is no available experimental information on their contribution to the binding free energy, detailed analysis of their properties shows that they are good candidates for being hot spots. Thus, highly central residues have a clear tendency to be located in regions that include hot spots. We also show that some of the central residues in the protein complex interfaces are central in the monomeric structures before dimerization and that possible information relating to hot spots of binding free energy could be obtained from the unbound structures.