Demographic controls of aboveground forest biomass across North America

Ecologists have limited understanding of how geographic variation in forest biomass arises from differences in growth and mortality at continental to global scales. Using forest inventories from across North America, we partitioned continental‐scale variation in biomass growth and mortality rates of 49 tree species groups into (1) species‐independent spatial effects and (2) inherent differences in demographic performance among species. Spatial factors that were separable from species composition explained 83% and 51% of the respective variation in growth and mortality. Moderate additional variation in mortality (26%) was attributable to differences in species composition. Age‐dependent biomass models showed that variation in forest biomass can be explained primarily by spatial gradients in growth that were unrelated to species composition. Species‐dependent patterns of mortality explained additional variation in biomass, with forests supporting less biomass when dominated by species that are highly susceptible to competition (e.g. Populus spp.) or to biotic disturbances (e.g. Abies balsamea).     

The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon: a comparison of estimates

The amount of carbon released to the atmosphere as a result of deforestation is determined, in part, by the amount of carbon held in the biomass of the forests converted to other uses. Uncertainty in forest biomass is responsible for much of the uncertainty in current estimates of the flux of carbon from land‐use change. In the present contribution several estimates of forest biomass are compared for the Brazilian Amazon, based on spatial interpolations of direct measurements, relationships to climatic variables, and remote sensing data. Three questions were posed: First, do the methods yield similar estimates? Second, do they yield similar spatial patterns of distribution of biomass? And, third, what factors need most attention if we are to predict more accurately the distribution of forest biomass over large areas? The answer to the first two questions is that estimates of biomass for Brazil's Amazonian forests (including dead and belowground biomass) vary by more than a factor of two, from a low of 39 PgC to a high of 93 PgC. Furthermore, the estimates disagree as to the regions of high and low biomass. The lack of agreement among estimates confirms the need for reliable determination of aboveground biomass over large areas. Potential methods include direct measurement of biomass through forest inventories with improved allometric regression equations, dynamic modelling of forest recovery following observed stand‐replacing disturbances, and estimation of aboveground biomass from airborne or satellite‐based instruments sensitive to the vertical structure plant canopies.     

兴安落叶松(Larix gmelini)幼中龄林的生物量与碳汇功能

兴安落叶松是我国的主要用材林,由于传统上对木材的长期依赖,使得其资源受到破坏,年龄结构发生改变,成过熟的原始林日渐减少,绝大部分是次生的幼中龄林。因此,研究其幼中龄林的生物量及碳汇功能很重要。森林生物量与森林生态系统的固碳能力密切相关,生物量与碳储量的多少直接影响到森林生态系统的功能,因而生物量与碳储量问题成为不同尺度生态学研究的热点。以我国大兴安岭兴安落叶松林为研究对象,通过样地调查,并结合我国森林资源清查资料对内蒙古大兴安岭地区兴安落叶松林的幼中龄林的生物量转换因子（BEF）、生物量及碳储量、碳密度、碳汇功能等进行了估算。通过实测数据及模型分析,得出以下基本结论：研究对象的BEF在0．4557与0．6988之间变动,平均值为0．5332。干、皮、枝、叶各组分生物量的分配比为：68．74：14．86：10．54：5．86。分别树干、树皮、枝、叶等组分,对其生物量与蓄积量的关系进行了拟合,建立了多组分生物量蓄积量的相关模型,分别是：干：y=0．4683x-11．291;皮：y=0．0472x＋3．5674;枝：y=0．0415x＋1．6787;叶：y=0．0197x＋1．3405,均有很好的线性关系。地上生物量随蓄积量的增加而增加,其线性关系为：B=0．5767V-4．7042。利用近期清查数据,按材积源生物量法推算总生物量为9．49×10^7t,按0．5097的含碳率计算,得出兴安落叶松林幼中龄林总的碳储量为4．84×10^7t,碳密度为19．616t／hm^2。通过两期数据对比分析,5a间所研究林分的碳储量增加0．89×10^7t,碳密度增加0．404t／hm^2,说明其发挥着一定的碳汇作用。尽管近年来大兴安岭兴安落叶松林表现出了明显的碳汇功能,但整体上碳固定能力还不强,碳密度低于我国平均森林碳密度。应通过科学经营,挖掘潜力,使大兴安岭地区的森林生态系统在全球碳循环中发挥更大的作用。     

兴安落叶松(Larix gmelini)幼中龄林的生物量与碳汇功能

兴安落叶松是我国的主要用材林,由于传统上对木材的长期依赖,使得其资源受到破坏,年龄结构发生改变,成过熟的原始林日渐减少,绝大部分是次生的幼中龄林。因此,研究其幼中龄林的生物量及碳汇功能很重要。森林生物量与森林生态系统的固碳能力密切相关,生物量与碳储量的多少直接影响到森林生态系统的功能,因而生物量与碳储量问题成为不同尺度生态学研究的热点。以我国大兴安岭兴安落叶松林为研究对象,通过样地调查,并结合我国森林资源清查资料对内蒙古大兴安岭地区兴安落叶松林的幼中龄林的生物量转换因子（BEF）、生物量及碳储量、碳密度、碳汇功能等进行了估算。通过实测数据及模型分析,得出以下基本结论：研究对象的BEF在0.4557与0.6988之间变动,平均值为0.5332。干、皮、枝、叶各组分生物量的分配比为：68.74：14.86：10.54：5.86。分别树干、树皮、枝、叶等组分,对其生物量与蓄积量的关系进行了拟合,建立了多组分生物量蓄积量的相关模型,分别是：干：y=0.4683x-11.291;皮：y=0.0472x+3.5674;枝：y=0.0415x+1.6787;叶：y=0.0197x+1.3405,均有很好的线性关系。地上生物量随蓄积量的增加而增加,其线性关系为：B=0.5767V-4.7042。利用近期清查数据,按材积源生物量法推算总生物量为9.49×10⁷t,按0.5097的含碳率计算,得出兴安落叶松林幼中龄林总的碳储量为4.84×10⁷t,碳密度为19.616 t/hm²。通过两期数据对比分析,5a间所研究林分的碳储量增加0.89×10⁷ t,碳密度增加0.404 t/hm²,说明其发挥着一定的碳汇作用。尽管近年来大兴安岭兴安落叶松林表现出了明显的碳汇功能,但整体上碳固定能力还不强,碳密度低于我国平均森林碳密度。应通过科学经营,挖掘潜力,使大兴安岭地区的森林生态系统在全球碳循环中发挥更大的作用。     

浙江省生态公益林碳储量和固碳现状及潜力

生态公益林是为保护和改善人类生存环境,维持生态平衡而建立的。以浙江省的生态公益林为研究对象,共调查和估算了全省21个县149个样地(年龄从5a到50a),包括常绿阔叶林、针阔混交林、马尾松林和杉木林4种主要林型的碳储量和碳平衡。结果说明:浙江省生态公益林生态系统碳密度的加权平均值为164.43tC.hm-2;其中常绿阔叶林生态系统碳储量最高,达216.18tC.hm-2;针阔混交林其次,达181.36tC.hm-2;针叶林最低。浙江省森林以幼龄林(小于30a的占87.5%)和马尾松林(大于55%)为主离成熟状态还相差很远,尤其是针叶林远低于全国平均水平和中高纬度地区碳密度。全省生态公益林净生态系统生产力加权平均得0.08tC.hm-.2a-1,在碳积累上还有很大的潜力。通过封育改造、择伐补阔或以灌促阔等森林管理措施,加快针叶林向针阔混交林直至常绿阔叶林演替,将最大化中国亚热带地区的幼林或受干扰森林的未来碳储量(最高增长31.44%),并成为较大的碳汇。     

人工林经营与全球变化减缓

以全球变暖和大气CO2浓度增加为主要特征的全球气候变化正在改变着陆地生态系统的结构和功能,威胁着人类的生存与健康,因而受到世界各国政府和科学家的普遍关注。森林,特别是森林土壤在全球碳循环中扮演着碳源、汇、库的角色,但其受到气候、森林类型和土地利用与覆被变化等自然和人为因素的综合调控。人工林的碳汇作用被认为是减缓全球变化的一种可能机制和最有希望的选择而成为全球变化减缓研究的核心内容。人工林土壤的碳汇功能受到经营水平的调控,同时还受到全球变暖的反馈作用。因此,人工林土壤碳汇形成机制及调控技术、基于增强土壤碳汇功能增强的人工林经营与管理技术、人工林生态系统的碳通量以及人工林碳汇与碳贸易等是未来全球变化和林业生态工程研究的重点内容。     

基于遥感降尺度估算中国森林生物量的空间分布

森林生物量是陆地生态系统重要的碳库,其大小与空间分布特征直接影响森林的碳汇潜力。基于空间降尺度技术,以中国第六次国家森林资源清查资料为基础,同时结合1∶100万植被分布图及同期的基于MODIS反演的NPP空间分布,定量估算了1 km分辨率下我国森林生物量的空间分布。结果表明:(1)降尺度技术能有效结合遥感数据的空间特征与地面详查资料的统计特征,从而较好地解决当前生物量估算的区域尺度转化问题;(2)我国森林生物量存在明显的空间分布规律,与水热条件的空间分布格局基本一致,表现为西部较低东部较高,大型山脉分布处较高;(3)我国森林生物量总量11.0 Pg,平均生物量74.8 Mg/hm2,其中高值区主要集中在东北大小兴安岭和长白山地区、新疆山区、西南横断山脉地区以及东南武夷山地区。     

The net carbon flux due to deforestation and forest re-growth in the Brazilian Amazon: analysis using a process-based model

We developed a process‐based model of forest growth, carbon cycling and land‐cover dynamics named CARLUC (for CARbon and Land‐Use Change) to estimate the size of terrestrial carbon pools in terra firme (nonflooded) forests across the Brazilian Legal Amazon and the net flux of carbon resulting from forest disturbance and forest recovery from disturbance. Our goal in building the model was to construct a relatively simple ecosystem model that would respond to soil and climatic heterogeneity that allows us to study the impact of Amazonian deforestation, selective logging and accidental fire on the global carbon cycle. This paper focuses on the net flux caused by deforestation and forest re‐growth over the period from 1970 to 1998. We calculate that the net flux to the atmosphere during this period reached a maximum of ～0.35 PgC yr^?1 (1 PgC= 1 × 10¹⁵ gC) in 1990, with a cumulative release of ～7 PgC from 1970 to 1998. The net flux is higher than predicted by an earlier study ( Houghton et al., 2000 ) by a total of 1 PgC over the period 1989–1998 mainly because CARLUC predicts relatively high mature forest carbon storage compared with the datasets used in the earlier study. Incorporating the dynamics of litter and soil carbon pools into the model increases the cumulative net flux by～1 PgC from 1970 to 1998, while different assumptions about land‐cover dynamics only caused small changes. The uncertainty of the net flux, calculated with a Monte‐Carlo approach, is roughly 35% of the mean value (1 SD).     

森林生态效益补偿优先级机制研究及应用——基于碳汇总量与变化量视角

森林生态效益补偿制度对于提高森林建设者积极性、促进森林生态效益提升具有重要意义。然而,我国森林生态效益补偿实践中依然存在仅以森林面积为补偿依据导致激励错位的问题。基于此,结合国家"双碳"目标,提出一种基于碳汇总量与变化量双向视角的综合森林生态效益补偿优先级机制,选取我国重要生态功能区秦巴山区为案例,分别从森林碳汇总量与变化量视角量化各区县生态补偿优先级,并构建二者结合的综合优先级模型,以促进在生态补偿实践中的资金分配公平性与激励性。研究发现,(1)在研究期内大多区县森林碳汇总量增长,但存在个别区县森林碳汇功能降低的现象,具体原因存在差异;(2)碳汇总量优先级与碳汇变化量优先级清单存在差异。总量优先级高的区县,变化量优先级较低,因此,生态补偿应综合考虑各区县森林碳汇在两个维度的表现;(3)综合优先级排名结果呈现"高值-中值-低值"的不同区间特征,该补偿机制在综合优先级高值区激励区县扩建森林、新增森林碳汇,在中值区激励区县保育森林,在低值区鼓励区县结合森林现状从扩建与保育两个方向提升森林碳汇功能。以森林碳汇保育与增汇成果为导向,有效探索碳汇功能在生态补偿中的实践价值,为我国区域森林生态效益补偿实践的公平性与科学性提供研究基础。     

Simulating effects of changing climate and CO2 emissions on soil carbon pools at the Hubbard Brook experimental forest

Carbon (C) sequestration in forest biomass and soils may help decrease regional C footprints and mitigate future climate change. The efficacy of these practices must be verified by monitoring and by approved calculation methods (i.e., models) to be credible in C markets. Two widely used soil organic matter models – CENTURY and RothC – were used to project changes in SOC pools after clear‐cutting disturbance, as well as under a range of future climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) scenarios. Data from the temperate, predominantly deciduous Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF) in New Hampshire, USA, were used to parameterize and validate the models. Clear‐cutting simulations demonstrated that both models can effectively simulate soil C dynamics in the northern hardwood forest when adequately parameterized. The minimum postharvest SOC predicted by RothC occurred in postharvest year 14 and was within 1.5% of the observed minimum, which occurred in year 8. CENTURY predicted the postharvest minimum SOC to occur in year 45, at a value 6.9% greater than the observed minimum; the slow response of both models to disturbance suggests that they may overestimate the time required to reach new steady‐state conditions. Four climate change scenarios were used to simulate future changes in SOC pools. Climate‐change simulations predicted increases in SOC by as much as 7% at the end of this century, partially offsetting future CO₂ emissions. This sequestration was the product of enhanced forest productivity, and associated litter input to the soil, due to increased temperature, precipitation and CO₂. The simulations also suggested that considerable losses of SOC (8–30%) could occur if forest vegetation at HBEF does not respond to changes in climate and CO₂ levels. Therefore, the source/sink behavior of temperate forest soils likely depends on the degree to which forest growth is stimulated by new climate and CO₂ conditions.     

土地利用变化对川西米亚罗林土壤活性碳库的影响

为了揭示土地利用变化对土壤活性有机碳库的影响,在四川省亚高山米亚罗林区,以原始冷杉林(M-Y)和由原始林转化成的45年龄云杉人工林(M-60)、25年龄云杉人工林(M-80)和菜地(M-C)等4种土地利用类型为研究对象,进行了土壤的微生物量碳(MBC)、水溶性有机碳(WDOC)和易氧化有机碳(LOC)的含量和季节变化研究.结果表明,土地利用变化明显影响土壤活性有机碳组分的含量,其中微生物量碳和水溶性有机碳的变化趋势为M-Y>M-60>M-80>M-C,易氧化有机碳的变化趋势则为M-60>M-Y.土地利用变化没有改变活性有机碳各组分的垂直分布,各组分均随着土层深度的增加而降低,季节变化幅度较小,但枯落物层和表层土壤的变化幅度明显高于深层土壤,而各组分的分配比例变化幅度明显小于活性有机碳含量的变化.     

米亚罗林区土地利用变化对土壤有机碳和微生物量碳的影响

为了解土地利用变化对土壤有机碳和微生物量碳的影响,分析了川西米亚罗林区原始冷杉林、20世纪60年代云杉人工林、20世纪80年代云杉人工林和农地的土壤有机碳和微生物量碳状况.结果表明,土地利用变化明显地影响了土壤有机碳和微生物量碳含量.土壤有机碳和微生物量碳含量原始林最高,其次为60年代人工林和80年代人工林,农地最低.农地土壤有机碳含量分别比原始林、60年代人工林和80年代人工林低83%、53%和52%,微生物量碳含量分别低23%、25%和21%.土壤有机碳和微生物量碳含量均随土壤深度的增加而降低,并且两者在不同土地利用类型的变化趋势基本一致.相关分析表明,土壤有机碳和土壤微生物量碳与全氮、水解氮、速效磷呈极显著相关(P＜0.01),说明土壤微生物量碳可作为衡量土壤有机碳变化的敏感指标,而土壤有机碳和微生物量碳含量可作为衡量土壤肥力和土壤质量变化的重要指标.     

中国西南地区热带森林演替序列碳动态

热带森林的破坏是全球性问题,我国西双版纳森林覆盖率受砍伐、火烧和短期耕种丢荒后,面积不断减少,取而代之的是大面积的不同演替状态的次生林。次生林演替过程中的碳储量和碳平衡的变化目前还鲜有研究,为了进一步揭示我国西南地区热带森林演替对于碳蓄积的影响,并制定更科学的热带森林经营管理措施,以结构复杂、生物多样和生物量巨大的热带森林为研究对象,并利用3个热带次生林的样地的实测数据,探讨了不同演替状态的热带次生林的碳储量变化,以及森林的净碳蓄积,死亡碳损失和更新碳增长等碳动态规律,分析表明:(1)在森林的演替过程中,森林的胸径分布频度从近正态分布逐渐向小径级的偏态分布发展,也就是随着演替的进展,小径级林木所占的比例越来越高。(2)热带次生林在森林固碳方面发挥着不可忽略的作用。(3)小的干扰,会波及森林的碳动态;大的干扰,如火灾和砍伐,将导致森林的次生演替,对森林的碳动态产生不可逆转的改变。(4)干旱事件是影响凋落物的季节和年间动态的原因,也是短时间尺度上影响碳平衡的一个重要因子。(5)不论原生林还是次生林,大树在生态系统碳动态方面皆扮演着重要的角色,因此本研究推荐注重大树的研究。     

Long‐term variation in Amazon forest dynamics

Questions: Have forest dynamics changed significantly in intact Amazon rainforests since the early 1980s? If so, what environmental drivers might potentially be responsible? Location: Central Amazonia, north of Manaus, Brazil. Methods: Within 20 1‐ha plots scattered over ～300 km², all trees (≥10 cm diameter at breast height) were marked, identified, and measured five times between 1981 and 2003. We estimated stand‐level dynamics (mortality, recruitment, and growth) for each census interval and evaluated weather parameters over the study period. Results: We observed a widespread, significant increase in tree mortality across our plots. Tree recruitment also rose significantly over time but lagged behind mortality. Tree growth generally accelerated but varied considerably among census intervals, and was lowest when mortality was highest. Tree basal area rose 4% overall, but stem number exhibited no clear trend. In terms of climate variation, annual maximum and minimum temperatures increased significantly during our study. Rainfall anomalies were strongly and positively associated with ENSO events. Conclusions: The increasing forest dynamics, growth, and basal area observed are broadly consistent with the CO₂ fertilization hypothesis. However, pronounced shorter‐term variability in stand dynamics might be associated with climatic vicissitudes. Tree mortality peaked, and tree recruitment and growth declined during atypically wet periods. Tree growth was fastest during dry periods, when reduced cloudiness might have increased available solar radiation. Inferences about causality are tenuous because tree data were collected only at multi‐year intervals. Mean temperatures and rainfall seasonality have both increased over time in central Amazonia, and these could potentially have long‐term effects on forest dynamics and carbon storage.     

Monitoring individual tree‐based change with airborne lidar

Understanding the carbon flux of forests is critical for constraining the global carbon cycle and managing forests to mitigate climate change. Monitoring forest growth and mortality rates is critical to this effort, but has been limited in the past, with estimates relying primarily on field surveys. Advances in remote sensing enable the potential to monitor tree growth and mortality across landscapes. This work presents an approach to measure tree growth and loss using multidate lidar campaigns in a high‐biomass forest in California, USA. Individual tree crowns were delineated in 2008 and again in 2013 using a 3D crown segmentation algorithm, with derived heights and crown radii extracted and used to estimate individual tree aboveground biomass. Tree growth, loss, and aboveground biomass were analyzed with respect to tree height and crown radius. Both tree growth and loss rates decrease with increasing tree height, following the expectation that trees slow in growth rate as they age. Additionally, our aboveground biomass analysis suggests that, while the system is a net source of aboveground carbon, these carbon dynamics are governed by size class with the largest sources coming from the loss of a relatively small number of large individuals. This study demonstrates that monitoring individual tree‐based growth and loss can be conducted with multidate airborne lidar, but these methods remain relatively immature. Disparities between lidar acquisitions were particularly difficult to overcome and decreased the sample of trees analyzed for growth rate in this study to 21% of the full number of delineated crowns. However, this study illuminates the potential of airborne remote sensing for ecologically meaningful forest monitoring at an individual tree level. As methods continue to improve, airborne multidate lidar will enable a richer understanding of the drivers of tree growth, loss, and aboveground carbon flux.     

Declining Amazon biomass due to deforestation and subsequent degradation losses exceeding gains

In the Amazon, deforestation and climate change lead to increased vulnerability to forest degradation, threatening its existing carbon stocks and its capacity as a carbon sink. We use satellite L-Band Vegetation Optical Depth (L-VOD) data that provide an integrated (top-down) estimate of biomass carbon to track changes over 2011–2019. Because the spatial resolution of L-VOD is coarse (0.25°), it allows limited attribution of the observed changes. We therefore combined high-resolution annual maps of forest cover and disturbances with biomass maps to model carbon losses (bottom-up) from deforestation and degradation, and gains from regrowing secondary forests. We show an increase of deforestation and associated degradation losses since 2012 which greatly outweigh secondary forest gains. Degradation accounted for 40% of gross losses. After an increase in 2011, old-growth forests show a net loss of above-ground carbon between 2012 and 2019. The sum of component carbon fluxes in our model is consistent with the total biomass change from L-VOD of 1.3 Pg C over 2012-2019. Across nine Amazon countries, we found that while Brazil contains the majority of biomass stocks (64%), its losses from disturbances were disproportionately high (79% of gross losses). Our multi-source analysis provides a pessimistic assessment of the Amazon carbon balance and highlights the urgent need to stop the recent rise of deforestation and degradation, particularly in the Brazilian Amazon.     

Climate change‐associated trends in net biomass change are age dependent in western boreal forests of Canada

The impacts of climate change on forest net biomass change are poorly understood but critical for predicting forest's contribution to the global carbon cycle. Recent studies show climate change‐associated net biomass declines in mature forest plots. The representativeness of these plots for regional forests, however, remains uncertain because we lack an assessment of whether climate change impacts differ with forest age. Using data from plots of varying ages from 17 to 210 years, monitored from 1958 to 2011 in western Canada, we found that climate change has little effect on net biomass change in forests ≤ 40 years of age due to increased growth offsetting increased mortality, but has led to large decreases in older forests due to increased mortality accompanying little growth gain. Our analysis highlights the need to incorporate forest age profiles in examining past and projecting future forest responses to climate change.