In search of the missing subject: narrative identity and posthumous wronging

With the advanced methods of analysing old biological material, it is pressing to discuss what should be allowed to be done with human remains, particularly for well documented historical individuals. We argue that Queen Christina of Sweden, who challenged the traditional gender roles, has an interest in maintaining her privacy when there are continued attempts to reveal her ‘true’ gender. In the long-running philosophical debate on posthumous wronging, the fundamental question is: Who is wronged? Our aim is to find this ‘missing subject’ using narrative theory.Narrative identity emphasises the fact that no person is alone in knowing or telling their life story. People’s lives are entangled and parts of the life story of a deceased person can remain in the living realm. Since the narrative identity of a person does not necessarily end upon their death, and this narrative continues to relate directly to the person who once existed, it is the narrative subject that can continue to be posthumously wronged. Queen Christina can no longer maintain her own identity, but we maintain it by our research into her life. We propose three duties relevant for posthumous wronging: the duty of truthfulness, the duty of recognition and the duty to respect privacy.     

Parents’ posthumous use of daughter’s ovarian tissue: Ethical dimensions

In recent years, progress in cancer treatment has greatly increased the chances of recovery. Yet, treatment may have irreversible effects on patients’ fertility. In order to protect future fertility, preservation of ovarian tissue may be offered today even to very young girls, involving a surgical procedure that may be performed by minimally invasive laparoscopy, under general anesthesia. However, in the tragic event of a girl’s death, questions may arise regarding the possible use of the preserved ovarian tissue by her parents. Should posthumous reproductive use of ovarian tissue without the girl’s prior consent (due to her young age) be considered a violation of her rights? On the other hand, can it be argued that it is in the interest of a child who died young to leave a genetic trace through posthumous reproduction, because genetic continuity is in the interest of every human being? After presenting the relevant clinical facts, we explore the ethical dimensions of this possible practice through an analysis of the interests of the deceased, her parents, and the child that may be born posthumously.     

BODY SIZE,SPERM COMPETITION,AND DETERMINANTS OF REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN MALE SAVANNA BABOONS

One component of sexual selection is sperm competition. It has been reasoned that the intensity of sperm competition may be reflected in the relative testicular sizes of animals. Among males residing in multimale breeding systems, testicular size is relatively larger than among males residing in unimale mating systems. Information on whether differences in testicular size within a species can account for differences in male reproductive success is unavailable for natural populations of primates. A population of six troops of savanna baboons in Kenya was surveyed for morphometric analysis, and one of these troops was the subject of extensive behavioral observations afterwards. Testicular weights could not be obtained, but measurements of linear dimensions were transformed into volumetric estimates. Male weight accounted for 30% of the variance in testicular volume. Neither body size nor testicular volume was associated with differences in male reproductive activity. The outcome of fights over access to females could not be related to male body size, and ejaculatory patterns of males were independent of testicle size. Both sperm competition and aggressive competition intensified during the four-day optimum conception period, but fights over access to consort females were infrequent. Among savanna baboons, the probability of an ejaculation resulting in a conception is fairly low, which may account for the infrequency of injurious fights. Although testicle size influences sperm production, it does not influence either the timing of mating or the fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa, and both of these factors probably account for a substantial fraction of the variance in male baboon paternity. Sperm competition is an adjunct to agonistic competition as a mechanism affecting male baboon reproductive success. It is concluded that male reproductive success in baboons is affected more by social factors than by morphological traits associated with size.     

Modulation of the oviductal environment by gametes

The notion of a gamete recognition system that alerts females to the presence of gametes in their reproductive tract profoundly influences our understanding of the physiology of events leading to conception and the bearing of offspring. Here, we show that the female responds to gametes within her tract by modulating the environment in which pregnancy is initially established. We found distinct alterations in oviductal gene expression as a result of sperm and oocyte arrival in the oviduct, which led directly to distinct alterations to the composition of oviductal fluid in vivo. This suggests that either gamete activates a cell-type-specific signal transduction pathway within the oviduct. This gamete recognition system presents a mechanism for immediate and local control of the oviductal microenvironment in which sperm transport, sperm binding and release, capacitation, transport of oocytes, fertilization, and early cleavage-stage embryonic development occur. This may explain the mechanisms involved in postcopulatory sexual selection, where there is evidence suggesting that the female reproductive tract can bias spermatozoa from different males in the favour of the more biologically attractive male. In addition, the presence of a gamete recognition system explains the oviduct's ability to tolerate spermatozoa while remaining intolerant to pathogens.     

Team swimming in ant spermatozoa

In species where females mate promiscuously, competition between ejaculates from different males to fertilize the ova is an important selective force shaping many aspects of male reproductive traits, such as sperm number, sperm length and sperm–sperm interactions. In eusocial Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants), males die shortly after mating and their reproductive success is ultimately limited by the amount of sperm stored in the queen''s spermatheca. Multiple mating by queens is expected to impose intense selective pressure on males to optimize the transfer of sperm to the storage organ. Here, we report a remarkable case of cooperation between spermatozoa in the desert ant Cataglyphis savignyi. Males ejaculate bundles of 50–100 spermatozoa. Sperm bundles swim on average 51% faster than solitary sperm cells. Team swimming is expected to increase the amount of sperm stored in the queen spermatheca and, ultimately, enhance male posthumous fitness.     

Sperm,Clinics, and Parenthood

In this article I examine a recent approach to regulating assisted reproduction, whereby use of some kind of medical intervention ‘triggers’ laws governing legal parenthood that are more favourable to intending parents and sperm providers. I argue that although perhaps an improvement on the previous legal framework, these laws are problematic for three important reasons. First, they are prone to violating parental rights and unjustly imposing substantial burdens on individuals. Second, they are discriminatory. Third, even if we take a pragmatic approach to the question of parenthood in these cases, these laws fail to properly consider the welfare interests of children. Finally, I conclude by showing that my argument does not entail adopting a laissez‐fair attitude to conception using third‐party sperm.     

Living Pictures,Reviving the Dead: Claiming Ritual and Identity through Posthumous Films

This text explores the construction and appreciation of posthumous films—filmed portraits of dead loved ones—in The Netherlands. The authors support the argument that, in this country, posthumous films function both as identity markers for the deceased and the bereaved, and as coping instruments. The study is based on interviews with the maker and commissioners of three posthumous films, and on an analysis of these films. We find posthumous films to be vehicles for bereaved people's emotions and thoughts that are closely intertwined with their everyday lives; as stimuli reviving people's memories of the dead; and as powerful media invoking individual agency in mourning.     

Enjeux psychosociaux du don de sperme: le point de vue des couples

The French national debate, which took place during the review of bioethical laws, concerns the issue of anonymity of gametes donations, among other questions. More specifically, the debate was focused on sperm donations in which numerous arguments have advocated for a partial opening of sperm donor’s anonymity. But what about couples who are implicated in donation programs? What do they want? What sort of practical changes occur for receiving couples in countries which take away the donor’s anonymity? Our article presents some results of recent social psychological research conducted on a significant sample of French receiving couples. Results focus as much on their experience and their intention to share the secret of conception through sperm donation, as on specific aspects of this type of donation and its defining legislative principles in France. Finally, we question the organizing principles of their stand regarding donator’s anonymity and the convergence of parental strategies in dissident legal frameworks, through the lens of international scientific literature.     

Genetic control of gamete quality in the mouse--a tribute to Halina Krzanowska

In this article, we summarise the principal research findings of the distinguished Polish scientist, Professor Halina Krzanowska, related to the genetic control of mammalian gamete quality. During the early stages of her career, Halina Krzanowska conducted experiments on poultry and then she moved on to work on mice. All her research on gamete quality was conducted on the research models, consomic, congenic and recombinant inbred strains, which Krzanowska developed herself. These models differed mostly in their fertility. Krzanowska was one of the first researchers to demonstrate the influence of chromosome Y on the morphology of mice spermatozoa. She also showed that the uterotubal junction is in vivo a selection barrier for the morphologically abnormal spermatozoa, whereas in vitro abnormal spermatozoa are able to participate in fertilization, the function of selective barrier being performed by the granulosa cell layer and the zona pellucida. Another model which Krzanowska produced were chimaeras, which she used to find out if the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa and the efficiency of fertilization are determined by germ cells themselves or by environmental factors and she discovered that sperm head shape, the proportion of abnormal sperm and fertilizing capacity are determined mainly by the genotype of germ cells and only minimally by environmental factors.     

Case series of fertility treatment in HIV-discordant couples (male positive, female negative): the Ontario experience

The success of combination antiretroviral therapies for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has resulted in prolonged life expectancy (over 40 years from diagnosis) and an improved quality of life for people living with HIV. The risk of vertical HIV transmission during pregnancy has been reduced to less than 1%. As a result of these breakthroughs and as many of these individuals are of reproductive age, fertility issues are becoming increasingly important for this population. One population in which conception planning and reduction of horizontal HIV transmission warrants further research is HIV-discordant couples where the male partner is HIV-positive and the female partner is HIV-negative. Sperm washing is a technique carried out in a fertility clinic that separates HIV from the seminal fluid. Although sperm washing followed by intrauterine insemination significantly reduces the risk of horizontal HIV transmission, there has been limited access to the procedure in North America. Furthermore, little is known about the conception decision-making experiences of HIV-discordant couples who might benefit from sperm washing. Chart reviews and semi-structured interviews were completed with 12 HIV-discordant couples in Ontario, Canada. Couples were recruited through HIV clinics and one fertility clinic that offered sperm washing. Participants identified a number of factors that affected their decision-making around pregnancy planning. Access to sperm washing and other fertility services was an issue (cost, travel and few clinics). Participants identified a lack of information on the procedure (availability, safety). Sources of support (social networks, healthcare providers) were unevenly distributed, especially among those who did not disclose their HIV status to friends and family. Finally, the stigmatisation of HIV continues to have a negative affect on HIV-discordant couples and their intentions to conceive. Access to sperm washing and fertility service is significantly limited for this population and is accompanied with a number of challenges.     

Spermicide, cryptic female choice and the evolution of sperm form and function

Sperm competition and cryptic female choice profoundly affect sperm morphology, producing diversity within both species and individuals. One type of within-individual sperm variation is sperm heteromorphism, in which each male produces two or more distinct types of sperm simultaneously, only one of which is typically fertile (the "eusperm"). The adaptive significance of nonfertile "parasperm" types is poorly understood, although numerous sperm-heteromorphic species are known from many disparate taxa. This paper examines in detail two female-centred hypotheses for the evolution and maintenance of this unconventional sperm production strategy. First, we use game theoretical models to establish that parasperm may function to protect eusperm from female-generated spermicide, and to elucidate the predictions of this idea. Second, we expand on the relatively undeveloped idea that parasperm are used by females as a criterion for cryptic female choice, and discuss the predictions generated by this idea compared to other hypotheses proposed to explain sperm heteromorphism. We critically evaluate both hypotheses, suggest ways in which they could be tested, and propose taxa in which they could be important.     

Relative efficacy of conventional sperm parameters and sperm penetration bioassay to assess bull fertility in vitro

Frozen semen samples from 10 bulls were thawed and actively motile sperm recovered using a swim-up technique. Calcium ionophore A23187 at 0.5 microM concentration was used for 1 min to induce the acrosome reaction in the sperm. Mature female golden hamsters were superovulated with 50 IU of equine chorionic gonadotrophin followed 56 h later with 75 IU of human chorionic gonadotrophin. The cumulus mass was recovered 17 h after hCG treatment by puncturing the oviducts in the infundibulum region. Subsequently, cumulus cell mass and zona pellucida were digested by 0.1% hyaluronidase and 0.1% trypsin, respectively, to yield zona-free hamster eggs (ZFE). A sperm penetration bioassay was performed by coincubating capacitated sperm at 5 X 10(6) concentration and ZFE for 3 h at 38 degrees C in an air incubator. The conception rate of the bulls was based of an average of 82.6 cows per bull with pregnancy status confirmed by rectal palpation. It was found to be strongly correlated (p < 0.01, r = 0.723) with fertilization percentage, whereas percent motile sperm, percent viable sperm and percent sperm with intact acrosomes were not significantly correlated with the conception rate (r = 0.210, -0.021 and -0.468, respectively). Results of the present study suggest that the sperm penetration bioassay can be reliably used to test the fertilizing potential of bull sperm in vitro.     

Puzzles of mammalian fertilization--and beyond

A complexity imposed on the events of conception during the evolution of eutherian mammals is reflected not only in the placenta but also in a series of gamete-related novelties that involve the design of sperm and eggs, their interactions leading to fertilization, epididymal function, and even the scrotal state. While their functional significance has been difficult to determine, I suggest on the basis of present evidence that the genesis of these novel features relates ultimately to changes in the egg associated with nidation, that they imply a new fertilization strategy, and that most are causally linked - a major first 'domino' being the formidable zona pellucida. The eutherian zona pellucida stands out by virtue of an elastic resilience and thickness which allow it to stretch around the expanding blastocyst. However, this quality of the zona together with its relative protease-insensitivity creates a physical challenge which appears to have determined the design of the sperm head, its behaviour at fertilization, and indirectly even the pattern of sperm maturation in the epididymis. In turn, that pattern appears to have evoked the development of the sperm storage function of the cauda region, with both sperm capacitation and the scrotal state as ultimate legacies of this. Coincidentally, the vulnerability of the small yolkless egg to polyspermy appears to have selected for a unique parsimonious pattern of sperm transport in the Fallopian tube, and possibly for the role of the cumulus oophorus as a sperm sequestering device. These ideas are supported generally by evidence from marsupials, as well as by the deviant patterns seen in some insectivorous mammals.     

Reduced curvilinear velocity of boar sperm on substrates with increased hydrophobicity

The curvilinear velocity (VCL) of boar spermatozoa between standard microscopy glassware decreases when the slides are coated with the hydrophobic polymer polystyrene (PS) compared with the less hydrophobic poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) coating. Sperm from three boars were observed and analyzed using particle tracking software. The VCL did not differ significantly between coatings of different thickness, indicating no penetration of the sperm into the coating and that only the surface layer of the polymer film interacts with the sperm and buffer medium. The VCL of sperm between PS-coated surfaces was significantly reduced compared with PMMA surfaces (P < 0.0001), and this was attributed to a stronger hydrophobic effect between PS and water. The size of this effect varied between different boars, perhaps as a consequence of variations in hydrophobicity of sperm from different boars or different ejaculates. The modification of surface properties in this way may improve our understanding of sperm behavior and may provide improvements to assisted conception techniques as animal or human sperm used in assisted conception are frequently manipulated in laboratory plastics as part of diagnostic procedures (e.g., semen analysis) or before injection into an oocyte or during the co-incubation with the oocyte in IVF. Controlling the velocity of sperm using the interaction properties of inert polymer coatings could lead to new sperm selection procedures for clinical use or the development of model systems to better understand sperm–surface interactions.     

Relationships between the results of a modified sperm penetration test and a swim-up technique and the fertility of ram semen

Two relatively simple techniques for the objective measurement of semen quality, and which are easy to apply in the field or laboratory, have been developed: a modified sperm penetration test read by the naked eye and a colorimeter-based swim-up technique. Both the modified sperm penetration and swim-up methods produced promising results in prediction of ram fertility; the modified sperm penetration test was correlated (P<0.05) with a 48-day nonreturn rate and a 60-day conception rate; the correlation between a swim-up velocity and the 60-day conception rate approached significance (r=0.483; 0.1>P>0.05).     

Effect of sequence of insemination after simultaneous thawing of multiple semen straws on conception rate to timed AI in suckled multiparous Nelore cows

The objective was to determine the effect of sequence of insemination after simultaneous thawing of multiple 0.5 mL semen straws on conception rate in suckled multiparous Nelore cows. The effect of this thawing procedure on in vitro sperm characteristics was also evaluated. All cows (N = 944) received the same timed AI protocol. Ten straws (0.5 mL) of frozen semen from the same batch were simultaneously thawed at 36 °C, for a minimum of 30 sec. One straw per cow was used for timed AI. Frozen semen from three Angus bulls was used. Timed AI records included sequence of insemination (first to tenth) and time of semen removal from thawing bath. For laboratory analyses, the same semen batches used in the field experiment were evaluated. Ten frozen straws from the same batch were thawed simultaneously in a thawing unit identical to that used in the field experiment. The following sperm characteristics were analyzed: sperm motility parameters, sperm thermal resistance, plasma and acrosomal membrane integrity, lipid peroxidation, chromatin structure, and sperm morphometry. Based on logistic regression, there were no significant effects of breeding group, body condition score, AI technician, and sire on conception rate, but there was an interaction between sire and straw group (P = 0.002). Semen from only one bull had decreased (P < 0.05) field fertility for the group of straws associated with the longest interval from thawing to AI. However, the results of the laboratory experiment were unable to explain the findings of the field experiment. Sperm width:length ratio of morphometric analysis was the single sperm characteristic with a significant interaction between sire and straw group (P = 0.02). It was concluded that sequence of insemination after simultaneous thawing of 10 semen straws can differently affect conception rates at timed AI, depending on the sire used. Nevertheless, the effects of this thawing environment on in vitro sperm characteristics, remain to be further investigated.     

Sperm Storage in the Yellow Dung Fly Scathophaga stercoraria: Identifying the Sperm of Competing Males in Separate Female Spermathecae

We examined the effects of male and female behaviour and morphology on the process of sperm storage in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga (Scatophaga) stercoraria. The larger of two males was more successful in transferring sperm to females' spermathecae the greater the difference in weight to his smaller competitor, as expected from previous studies by other authors. Sperm length, which is not correlated to body size, affected sperm access to the spermathecae, the female storage organs; longer sperm were more likely to be found in the spermathecae. A female typically had a singlet spermatheca and two spermathecae arranged as a pair, a doublet. However, there was variation from this pattern, which influenced the pattern of sperm storage. We measured the proportion of sperm from two competing males in females' singlet and doublet spermathecae. When the larger male's sperm were longer than his competitor's, they were more often in a female's singlet when he was her first mate and equally likely to be in the singlet or doublet when he was her second mate. When the larger male's sperm were shorter than his competitor's, the pattern was more complicated, principally because his sperm were not as successful at entering the female's doublet when he was her second mate. Counts of sperm, made using the same experimental procedure, showed that these effects were due to greater numbers of sperm entering the females' doublets when the larger male mated second. Sperm length was thus the factor with the largest single influence on the pattern of sperm storage. However, our most important result is that it was the interactions between male and female characters that were significant. Males mostly determine the early, especially precopulatory, events and females strongly influence the later ones.     

A Possible Explanation for Cryptic Female Choice in the Yellow Dung Fly,Scathophaga stercoraria (L.)

Cryptic, or post-copulatory, female choice could markedly affect the outcome of sperm competition, i.e. a female could differentially manipulate ejaculates within her own body, affecting the fertilization successes of her mating partners. Female yellow dung flies, Scathophaga (Scatophaga) stercoraria, have three spermathecae, the sperm-storage organs, and can to some extent store the sperm of different males in different places. I show that a female's body size, as well as those of her mates, influences the process of sperm storage. Furthermore, females lay eggs of different genotypes under different environmental conditions. Females use both cues correlated with single locus variation (at the locus for the enzyme phosphoglucomutase, PGM) and quantitative trait variation (in body size and development time) when using sperm to fertilize their eggs. It is proposed that this allows a female to match the genotypes of her offspring to the conditions in which the larvae must grow, thus increasing their subsequent fitness. I describe an experiment where larvae of different PGM genotypes were raised in different environments and the most successful genotype was different in different environments. The complexity of the female reproductive system may therefore have evolved because the best father for a female's offspring, from the female's viewpoint, is different under different environmental conditions. The effect interacts with the established male-determined effects to influence the outcome of sperm competition.     

Spermiogenesis in an iceryine coccid,Steatococcus tuberculatus morrison

The spermatozoon of Steatococcus is a motile filament containing a core of two chromosomes arranged in tandem and surrounded by more than 80 microtubules in 2 1/2 concentric rings. Two sperm develop from each binucleate spermatid in the form of long papillae. From the zone corresponding to the pole of the previous division microtubules appear and lengthen, assembly apparently occurring at their proximal undifferentiated ends. As they extend, they presumably push out the cytoplasmic papilla and co-extend a nuclear papilla through bridges with the nuclear envelope. Chromatin, attached to the envelope, is thus carried into the papilla, the shorter chromosome in the lead. 100 Å chromatin filaments are reduced to 20 Å and aligned as they enter the papilla. The filaments transform into 100 Å tubular fibrils, presumably by supercoiling. These then pack hexagonally, aggregate further into packed axial filaments, and finally condense into a nearly solid core in the mature sperm. Completed papillae (sperm) detach from the spermatid leaving behind nuclei devoid of chromatin. Following cycles of spiralization and despiralization, the sperm are bundled into hexagonal packs of 32 in register by cyst wall cells. The latter form primary and secondary sheaths and lay down a matrix within the bundle. As originally reported by Hughes Schrader (1946), no evidence of centriole, acrosome, mitochondrial derivative or structure suggesting flagellar axoneme is found in either the developing papilla or the mature sperm. The microtubules determine the axis of the developing sperm; polarity is set by the direction of sperm motion and is homologous with most flagellate sperm in that the nuclear material is anterior and the microtubule initiating center is posterior. All of the functions attributed to microtubules are manifest in differentiation of this sperm: extension, support, translocation and motility.This paper is affectionately dedicated to Professor Sally Hughes-Schrader on the occasion of her seventy-fifth birthday, with warm appreciation of her friendship, her exemplary science, her keen criticism, her contagious enthusiasm, and for leading me to Steatococcus.     

Sex preselection: laboratory validation of the sperm sex ratio of flow sorted X- and Y-sperm by sort reanalysis for DNA

Laboratory validation is essential in developing an effective method for separating X and Y sperm to preselect sex. Utilizing sexed sperm from a particular experiment to test fertility and achieve the subsequent phenotypic sex without knowing the likely outcome at conception is too costly for most applications. Further, research advances need to be built on an ongoing assessment with respect to the collection of data to continue progress towards achieving a successful outcome. The Beltsville Sperm Sexing Technology, which is based on the sorting of X- and Y-bearing sperm through the process of flow-cytometric sperm sorting, is also well suited for validation in the laboratory by "sort reanalysis" of the sperm X- and Y-bearing fractions for DNA content. Since the sexing technology is based on the use of Hoechst 33342, a permeant nuclear DNA stain for sorting X- and Y-bearing sperm, it also can be the marker for determining the proportions of X and Y populations by sort reanalysis. The process consists of using an aliquot of the sorted sperm and sonicating to obtain sperm nuclei. The uniformity of the nuclear staining is re-established through the addition of more Hoechst 33342. Separate analysis of each aliquot produces a histogram that is fitted to a double gaussian curve to determine proportions of X and Y populations. The relative breadths of the distributions of DNA of X- and Y-bearing sperm within a species affects interpretations of the histogram. Sort reanalysis is consistently repeatable with differences in X/Y DNA equal to or greater than 3.0%. This information on sex ratio of the sperm then provides the precise tool by which one can predict the outcome in terms of sex, from a particular sample of semen. Simple analysis of unsorted sperm to determine the proportions of X- and Y-bearing sperm based on DNA content is also an effective tool for validating sperm-sex ratio, whether it is in a sample assumed to be 50:50 or predicted to be something other than 50:50. This simple analysis provides for a check on the potential sex ratio of any sample of semen.