Mast cell chymase. A potent secretagogue for airway gland serous cells

Submucosal glands are the major sources of airway secretions in most mammals. Mast cells are abundant in the environment of airway submucosal glands and are rich sources of secreted proteases. To investigate the hypothesis that mast cell proteases stimulate airway gland secretion, we studied the ability of the two major mast cell granule proteases, chymase and tryptase, to cause secretion of 35S-labeled macromolecules from a line of cultured bovine airway gland serous cells. Mast cell chymase and tryptase were purified from dog mastocytoma cells. Chymase markedly stimulated serous cell secretion in a concentration-dependent fashion with a threshold of 10(-10) M, whereas tryptase had no effect. The response to 10(-8) M chymase (1530 +/- 80% over base line) was approximately 10-fold higher than that evoked by other agonists such as histamine and isoproterenol. The predominant 35S-labeled macromolecule released by chymase was chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan, the glycoconjugate present in serous cell secretory granules. The response to chymase was non-cytotoxic and was blocked by active site inhibitors of chymase (soybean trypsin inhibitor and chymostatin) and by inhibitors of cellular energy metabolism (azide,2,4-dinitrophenol, dicumarol). Supernatant obtained by degranulation of mastocytoma cells caused a secretory response of comparable magnitude to that caused by chymase. These findings demonstrate that chymase, but not tryptase, is a potent secretagogue for airway gland serous cells, and they suggest a possible role for chymase-containing mast cells in the pathogenesis of airway hypersecretion.     

Mast cell heterogeneity in the human uvea

To identify chymase- and tryptase-positive mast cells in the human uvea, and to study their associations with different types of resident uveal cells, uveal specimens from 24 human donor eyes were cryosectioned in sagittal and tangential planes. Enzyme histochemical staining of chymase was combined with immunohistochemical staining for tryptase, detected with the APAAP method. Fluorescence immunohistochemistry was performed with antibodies against c-kit, alpha smooth muscle actin, protein gene product (PGP) 9.5, CD45, and HLA-DR. In different uveal compartments, the total amounts of mast cells were calculated and the distributions of chymase and tryptase were quantified. All uveal mast cells were c-kit and CD45 positive and HLA-DR negative. No association existed between mast cells and actin-containing cells. Only a few mast cells were in close association with PGP 9.5-labeled nerve fibers. In the choroid, most mast cells were located in the inner central part (mean density = 48.9/mm²), and contained both chymase and tryptase (96%). The ciliary muscle contained numerous mast cells (mean density = 33.7/mm²), many of them tryptase positive but chymase negative (63%). In the pars plana, a high number of chymase-positive, tryptase-negative mast cells were found (20%). In the iris only a few mast cells were present. Although the choroid contains the most common subtype of mast cells, a unique situation concerning the distribution of chymase and tryptase is present in the anterior uveal tissues. A possible role for these cells in the special immunological situation of the anterior eye chamber merits further investigation. Accepted: 16 September 1999     

Deficiency of the tryptase-positive, chymase-negative mast cell type in gastrointestinal mucosa of patients with defective T lymphocyte function

The distribution and concentration of human T (tryptase-positive, chymase-negative) and TC (tryptase-positive, chymase-positive) mast cells were examined in Carnoy's-fixed specimens of the gastrointestinal tract of normal individuals, patients with inflammatory bowel diseases, and patients with immunodeficiency disorders. In normal specimens, T mast cells predominated in the mucosa (89%), with a mean concentration of 17,850 +/- 4,998 per mm3 (+/- SD, n = 16), whereas TC mast cells predominated in the submucosa (90%) with a mean concentration of 7,516 +/- 1,227 per mm3 (+/- SD, n = 16). The concentrations of T and TC mast cells in specimens of ileum from five patients with active Crohn's disease and of colon from three patients with active ulcerative colitis were not significantly different (p greater than 0.4) from normal values. Three patients with combined immunodeficiency disorders demonstrated a marked decrease in the concentration of the T mast cells in the intestinal mucosa, to 540 +/- 630, and a corresponding decrease in the percentage of T mast cells to 9%. Concentrations of TC mast cells were unchanged, both in the mucosa and in the submucosa. In three patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a similar deficiency of the T mast cell type was observed in the ileal mucosa, with a mean concentration of 788 +/- 534 T mast cells per mm3, but not in the appendiceal and colonic mucosa of one of the three patients. These findings indicate a role for functional T lymphocytes in the development of the T mast cell type in humans, and suggest divergent pathways for development of T and TC mast cells.     

Mast cell chymase modifies cell-matrix interactions and inhibits mitogen-induced proliferation of human airway smooth muscle cells

The hallmarks of chronic, severe asthma include prominent airway inflammation and airway smooth muscle (ASM) hypertrophy and hyperplasia. One of the factors that contribute to the injury and repair process within the airway is activation of proteases and turnover of extracellular matrix components. Mast cells, which are present in increased numbers in the asthmatic airway, are a rich source of the neutral protease chymase, which can degrade several basement membrane components. Recent data suggest that proteases also play a critical role in regulating the expression of CD44, the primary receptor for the matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan. In this study we investigated the effects of chymase treatment on human ASM cell function. We found that chymase degraded the smooth muscle cell pericellular matrix. This was accompanied by an increased release of fibronectin and soluble CD44, but not soluble ICAM-1 or soluble hyaluronan, into the conditioned medium. In addition, chymase inhibited T cell adhesion to ASM and dramatically reduced epidermal growth factor-induced smooth muscle cell proliferation. These data suggest that the local release of mast cell chymase may have profound effects on ASM cell function and airway remodeling.     

Increased local angiotensin II formation in aneurysmal aorta

We investigated the levels and locations of angiotensin II-forming enzymes, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and chymase, in aneurysmal and normal aortas. Aneurysmal aortic specimens (n = 14) were obtained at the time of operative aneurysm repair from 14 patients ranging in age from 57 to 84 y. Normal aortic specimens (n = 16) were obtained from 16 patients (48 to 72 y) who underwent coronary artery bypass surgery. The ACE and chymase activities were determined using each specimen. Sections of each specimen were immunostained with antibodies for ACE and chymase. The ACE activities in the aneurysmal and normal aortas were 0.82 +/- 0.10 and 0.14 +/- 0.05 mU/mg protein, respectively, and this difference was significant. The chymase activities in the aneurysmal and normal aortas were 17.9 +/- 2.40 and 1.02 +/- 0.18 mU/mg protein, respectively, and this difference was also significant. In the aneurysmal aorta, ACE-positive cells were detected with macrophages in the intima and media and chymase-positive cells were detected with mast cells in the media and adventitia, whereas positive ACE and chymase cells in the normal aorta were located only in the endothelium and adventitia, respectively. Angiotensin II-forming enzymes, chymase and ACE, were significantly increased in the aneurysmal aorta, and increased angiotensin II may be associated with the development of aneurysmal formations.     

Mast cell proteoglycans modulate the secretagogue, proteoglycanase, and amidolytic activities of dog mast cell chymase.

Chymase, a potent secretagogue for airway gland serous cells, is stored in secretory granules and released from mast cells together with proteoglycans. To investigate the hypothesis tha tproteoglycans modulate chymase-induced effects, we studied the influence of proteoglycans purified from dog mastocytoma cells on chymase-induced secretion from cultured bovine airway gland serous cells. Heparin proteoglycans reduced the chymase-induced secretory response, whereas glycosaminoglycans and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans had less of an effect. Chymase released together with proteoglycans from activated mast cells caused secretion comparable to that caused by purified chymase reconstituted with purified proteoglycans. Despite partial inhibition by exocytosed proteoglycans, the secretagogue activity of chymase remains substantial compared to that of histamine. However, proteoglycans virtually abolished chymase-induced degradation of the products of serous cell secretion. Although the secretagogue and proteoglycanase activities of chymase are inhibited by most classes of mast cell granule-associated glycans, the amidolytic activity of chymase toward tripeptide 4-nitroanilide substrates is augmented. These findings suggest that mast cell proteoglycans modulate the secretagogue, proteoglycanase, and peptidase activity of chymase, and the results predict that the extent of this modulation in vivo depends on the nature of the proteoglycans with which chymase is released from mast cells.     

In situ detection of the mast cell proteases chymase and tryptase in human lung tissue using light and electron microscopy

Scroll-rich, "mucosal" mast cells are the predominant human lung mast cell type. It has been proposed that these mast cells store tryptase but are mostly chymase deficient. We present a detailed immunolocalisation study of chymase and tryptase in lung specimens of eight patients. Using monoclonal antibody B7 in a conventional tissue processing method for light microscopy, chymase-positive mast cells were much fewer than tryptase-positive ones. However, they approached the number of tryptase-positive cells when optimised processing was used. Two different monoclonal antibodies, B7 and CC1, were used to visualise chymase in purified lung mast cells of two patients using ultrastructural immunogold labelling. Immunoabsorption controls demonstrated a reactivity of B7 with both tryptase and chymase, but indicated specificity of CC1 for chymase. On the ultrastructural level, all of more than 1,400 lung mast cells evaluated labelled for chymase. Reactivity was seen in cytoplasmic granules, cytoplasm and vesicles, but not elsewhere. Tryptase labelling using monoclonal antibody G3 was also present in all mast cells detected, and was retained in altered granules (=activated mast cells), where B7 labelling was sparse. The average labelling density was approximately sixfold higher than for chymase. In summary, chymase may be more abundant in human lung mast cells than hitherto thought.     

Mast cell fibroblastoid differentiation mediated by airway smooth muscle in asthma

Mast cell microlocalization to the airway smooth muscle (ASM) bundle is a key feature of asthma, but whether these mast cells have an altered phenotype is uncertain. In this paper, we report that in vivo, mast cells within the ASM bundle, in contrast to mast cells in the bronchial submucosa, commonly expressed fibroblast markers and the number of these cells was closely related to the degree of airway hyperresponsiveness. In vitro human lung mast cells and mast cell lines cultured with fibronectin or with primary human ASM cells acquired typical fibroblastic markers and morphology. This differentiation toward a fibroblastoid phenotype was mediated by ASM-derived extracellular matrix proteins, independent of cell adhesion molecule-1, and was attenuated by α5β1 blockade. Fibroblastoid mast cells demonstrated increased chymase expression and activation with exaggerated spontaneous histamine release. Together these data indicate that in asthma, ASM-derived extracellular matrix proteins mediate human mast cell transition to a fibroblastoid phenotype, suggesting that this may be pivotal in the development of airway dysfunction in asthma.     

Mast cells promote airway smooth muscle cell differentiation via autocrine up-regulation of TGF-beta 1

Asthma is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is characterized by airway dysfunction and inflammation. A key determinant of the asthma phenotype is infiltration of airway smooth muscle bundles by activated mast cells. We hypothesized that interactions between these cells promotes airway smooth muscle differentiation into a more contractile phenotype. In vitro coculture of human airway smooth muscle cells with beta-tryptase, or mast cells with or without IgE/anti-IgE activation, increased airway smooth muscle-derived TGF-beta1 secretion, alpha-smooth muscle actin expression and agonist-provoked contraction. This promotion to a more contractile phenotype was inhibited by both the serine protease inhibitor leupeptin and TGF-beta1 neutralization, suggesting that the observed airway smooth muscle differentiation was driven by the autocrine release of TGF-beta1 in response to activation by mast cell beta-tryptase. Importantly, in vivo we found that in bronchial mucosal biopsies from asthmatics the intensity of alpha-smooth muscle actin expression was strongly related to the number of mast cells within or adjacent to an airway smooth muscle bundle. These findings suggest that mast cell localization in the airway smooth muscle bundle promotes airway smooth muscle cell differentiation into a more contractile phenotype, thus contributing to the disordered airway physiology that characterizes asthma.     

Mast cells in vulnerable coronary plaques: potential mechanisms linking mast cell activation to plaque erosion and rupture

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: A novel link between inflammation and acute coronary syndromes is emerging, in that infiltrating inflammatory cells may convert a clinically silent coronary plaque into a dangerous and potentially lethal plaque. The majority of acute atherothrombotic events now relate to erosion or rupture of such unstable plaques. Here we summarize the molecular mechanisms by which activated mast cells may contribute to plaque erosion or rupture. RECENT FINDINGS: In-vitro experiments have revealed a multitude of paracrine effects exerted by activated mast cells. By secreting heparin proteoglycans and chymase, activated mast cells efficiently inhibit the proliferation of smooth muscle cells in vitro, and reduce their ability to produce collagen by a transforming growth factor beta-dependent and -independent mechanism. Mast cell chymase and tryptase are capable of activating matrix metalloproteinases types 1 and 3, causing degradation of the extracellular matrix component, collagen, necessary for the stability of the plaque. Activated mast cells also secrete matrix metalloproteinases types 1 and 9 themselves. Furthermore, chymase induces SMC apoptosis by degrading fibronectin, a pericellular matrix component necessary for SMC adhesion and survival, with the subsequent disruption of focal adhesions and loss of outside-in survival signaling. By secreting chymase and tumour necrosis factor alpha, activated mast cells also induce endothelial cell apoptosis. SUMMARY: Locally activated mast cells may participate in the weakening of atherosclerotic plaques by secreting heparin proteoglycans, chymase, and cytokines, which affect the growth, function and death of arterial endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, thereby predisposing to plaque erosion or rupture.     

Mast cell granule composition and tissue location--a close correlation

This review provides a survey on mast cell heterogeneity, with aspects differing in humans and rodents or which are subject of conflicting evidence being discussed in greater detail. Mast cell subsets have been first defined in rats by their fixation and dye-binding properties, and detailed studies in humans and pigs reveal very similar observations. The dye-binding properties of rat mast cell subsets are causally related to the absence or presence of heparin in their granules. In humans, this relation has not been shown. Rodent mast cell subsets store different chymase-isoforms. In contrast, just a single chymase has been defined in humans, and mast cells are classified by the presence or relative absence of this chymase. Different investigators find quite different proportions of chymase-positive to chymase-negative mast cells. Tryptase(s) are found in most or every human mast cell, but in rodents, they have hitherto been essentially localised to mast cells in connective tissues. Human mast cell subsets may also be defined by their expression of receptors such as C5aR and possibly the beta-chemokine receptor CCR3; the CCR3 expression seems to be related to the human mast cell chymase expression. Ultrastructural studies are helpful to distinguish human mast cell subsets, and allow to distinguish between chronic and acute activation. The phenotypical characteristics may change in association with inflammation or other disease processes. Studies in humans and pigs show changed dye-binding and fixation properties of the granules. Experimental rodent infection models reveal similar changes of chymase isoform expression. Human lung mast cells have been reported to strongly upregulate their chymase content in pulmonary vascular disease. This line of evidence can explain some inconsistent information on mast cell heterogeneity and may help to understand the physiological role of mast cells.     

Human mast cell carboxypeptidase. Selective localization to MCTC cells

Two murine mAb were prepared against human mast cell carboxypeptidase (HMC-CP) purified from human skin, and were termed CP1 and CP2, respectively. Double immunohistochemical labeling of Carnoy's-fixed sections of human skin, lung, and gastrointestinal tissue with CP1 and CP2, respectively, and with a murine monoclonal antitryptase antibody demonstrated that HMC-CP was selectively present in a subset of human mast cells. Double labeling experiments with CP1 and CP2, respectively, and a murine anti-chymase mAb demonstrated the presence of HMC-CP in the tryptase-positive, chymase-positive mast cell type (MCTC) only. Immunohistochemical labeling of peripheral blood leukocytes resulted in staining of monocytes with CP2 but not with CP1. In addition to chymase and a cathepsin-G like proteinase, HMC-CP is another neutral protease that is selectively present in the MCTC tryptase-positive, chymase-positive mast cells type of mast cell, thus extending the biochemical definition of human mast cell heterogeneity.     

胃促胰酶和肥大细胞在豚鼠过敏性休克死亡的应用

目的:建立豚鼠过敏性休克模型,研究胃促胰酶和肥大细胞在过敏性休克诊断上的应用。方法:20只清洁级豚鼠随机分为10只实验组和10只对照组,应用混合人血清构建的过敏模型,ELISA方法测定豚鼠血清Ig E含量,免疫组化染色观察胃促胰酶在喉头、气管、肺、胃、肠的表达,肥大细胞特殊染色计数肥大细胞。结果:实验组豚鼠有70%发生过敏性休克死亡,实验组豚鼠血清中Ig E的含量显著高于对照组豚鼠(P0.05),实验组豚鼠于喉头、气管、肺胃促胰酶的表达高于对照组(P0.05),实验组豚鼠于喉头、气管、肺、胃的肥大细胞总数高于对照组豚鼠(P0.05),肺组织观察到肥大细胞脱颗粒。结论:胃促胰酶和肥大细胞可以为过敏性休克死亡的法医学鉴定提供参考。     

Fraktalkine produced by airway smooth muscle cells contributes to mast cell recruitment in asthma

Human airway smooth muscle cells (HASMC) secrete fractalkine (FKN), a chemokine the concentration of which is increased in asthmatic patients. HASMC also induce mast cell chemotaxis, as a component of asthma inflammation. We therefore evaluated the role of smooth muscle-derived FKN in mast cell migration. We assessed the capacity of recombinant FKN to induce human mast cell chemotaxis. This effect implicates a calcium-independent pathway involving actin reorganization and protein kinase C-delta. We found that HASMC constitutively produce FKN, the synthesis of which is reinforced upon proinflammatory stimulation. Under basal experimental conditions, FKN production by HASMC is not sufficient to induce mast cell chemotaxis. However, pretreatment of mast cells with the neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) increases FKN potency to attract mast cells. Since we observed, in asthmatic patients, an increase in both FKN and VIP expression by airway smooth muscle and a positive correlation between VIP staining and mast cell infiltration of the smooth muscle layer, we conclude that HASMC-derived FKN may contribute to mast cell recruitment in asthma.     

Peptide boronic acids, substrate analogs, inhibit chymase, and histamine release from rat mast cells

Peptide boronic acids, such as methoxysuccinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-(L)boro-Phe-OH, its pinacol ester, and t-butyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Pro-(L)boro-Phe-pinacol, inhibited the activity of chymase from connective tissue mast cells approximately 40- to 80-fold more than atypical chymase from mucosal mast cells, and did not inhibit trypsin. Only peptide boronic acids containing "L" forms of boronic acids were inhibitory. The Ki values of these peptide boronic acids for chymase were in the 60-170 nM concentration range, like those of the natural inhibitors tested, but all the natural inhibitors tested except Eglin C and chymostatin inhibited both chymase and trypsin. Thus these peptide boronic acids should be useful for selective inhibition of chymase with less inhibitory activity for atypical chymase and without inhibition of trypsin. These peptide boronic acids markedly inhibited histamine release induced by anti-rat immunoglobulin E, suggesting that chymase in connective tissue mast cells plays some role in the process of histamine release. These peptides are assumed to be therapeutically useful for treatment of allergic inflammations catalyzed by chymase.     

Role of mast cells in health: daily rhythmic variations in their number, exocytotic activity, histamine and serotonin content in the rat thyroid gland.

A chronobiologic transverse study on rat thyroid has been carried out to investigate whether mast cells and their content in biogenic amines normally undergo daily variations and whether these are related to circadian activity of the gland. The mean number of mast cells per microscopic field presents daily variations ranging from 10.9 +/- 3 to 14.6 +/- 3.8 in males and from 8.4 +/- 1.9 to 14.8 +/- 3 in females: these variations show a circadian trend in both sexes, with a 12 hrs period and two peaks at about 11:10/23:10. The mean percentage of degranulated mast cells per microscopic fields shows daily variations ranging from 51 +/- 11 to 60.4 +/- 14.2 in males and from 49.8 +/- 12.5 to 58.3 +/- 13.6 in females; these variations present a circadian rhythm with a 24 hrs period and a mean peak at 02:00. The histamine content of the gland varies in 24 hrs from 20.93 +/- 1.19 micrograms/g w w to 38.08 +/- 1.7 micrograms/g w w, without any sex-related difference: these variations show a rhythmic trend with a 12 hrs period and two peaks at 09:10/21:10. Serotonin content of thyroid presents circadian variations from 15.98 +/- 0.83 to 23.23 +/- 0.61 micrograms/g w w, with a 12 hrs period and two peaks at 04:20/16:20. Whereas the variations of mast cell exocytosis and of serotonin content seem to be chronobiologically linked to circadian variations of gland activity, evaluated on the basis of free and total tetraiodothyronine serum levels, the variations of mast cell number appear to be related to those of thyroid and blood histamine. The present data support the hypothesis that mast cell activity should not be considered as only linked to inflammation or allergic responses.     

Aquaporin-5 dependent fluid secretion in airway submucosal glands

Fluid and macromolecule secretion by submucosal glands in mammalian airways is believed to play an important role in airway defense and surface liquid homeostasis and in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis. Immunocytochemistry revealed strong expression of aquaporin water channel AQP5 at the luminal membrane of serous epithelial cells in submucosal glands throughout the mouse nasopharynx and upper airways and AQP4 at the contralateral basolateral membrane in some glands. Novel methods were applied to measure secretion rates and composition of gland fluid in wild type mice and knockout mice lacking AQP4 or AQP5. In mice breathing through a tracheotomy, total gland fluid output was measured from the dilution of a volume marker present in the fluid-filled nasopharynx and upper trachea. Pilocarpine-stimulated fluid secretion was 4.3 +/- 0.4 microl/min in wild type mice, 4.9 +/- 0.9 microl/min in AQP4 null mice, and 1.9 +/- 0.3 microl/min in AQP5 null mice (p < 0.001). Similar results were obtained when secreted fluid was collected in the oil-filled nasopharyngeal cavity. Real-time video imaging of fluid droplets secreted from individual submucosal glands near the larynx in living mice showed a 57 +/- 4% reduced fluid secretion rate in AQP5 null mice. Analysis of secreted fluid showed a 2.3 +/- 0.2-fold increase in total protein in AQP5 null mice and a smaller increase in [Cl(-)], suggesting intact protein and salt secretion across a relatively water impermeable epithelial barrier. Submucosal gland morphology and density did not differ significantly in wild type versus AQP5 null mice. These results indicate that AQP5 facilitates fluid secretion in submucosal glands and that the luminal membrane of gland epithelial cells is the rate-limiting barrier to water movement. Modulation of gland AQP5 expression or function might provide a novel approach to treat hyperviscous gland secretions in cystic fibrosis and excessive fluid secretions in infectious or allergic bronchitis/rhinitis.     

Dipeptidyl peptidase I is essential for activation of mast cell chymases, but not tryptases, in mice

Dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI) is the sole activator in vivo of several granule-associated serine proteases of cytotoxic lymphocytes. In vitro, DPPI also activates mast cell chymases and tryptases. To determine whether DPPI is essential for their activation in vivo, we used enzyme histochemical and immunohistochemical approaches and solution-based activity assays to study these enzymes in tissues and bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) from DPPI +/+ and DPPI -/- mice. We find that DPPI -/- mast cells contain normal amounts of immunoreactive chymases but no chymase activity, indicating that DPPI is essential for chymase activation and suggesting that DPPI -/- mice are functional chymase knockouts. The absence of DPPI and chymase activity does not affect the growth, granularity, or staining characteristics of BMMCs and, despite prior predictions, does not alter IgE-mediated exocytosis of histamine. In contrast, the level of active tryptase (mMCP-6) in DPPI -/- BMMCs is 25% that of DPPI +/- BMMCs. These findings indicate that DPPI is not essential for mMCP-6 activation but does influence the total amount of active mMCP-6 in mast cells and therefore may be an important, but not exclusive mechanism for tryptase activation.     

Stem cell factor is localized in, released from, and cleaved by human mast cells.

Stem cell factor (SCF) is the most important cytokine regulating human mast cell growth and functions. The immunogold technique showed SCF in the secretory granules of skin mast cells and in lung parenchymal mast cells (HLMC). Immunoreactive SCF (iSCF) was detected in cell lysates of HLMC, but not in basophils; iSCF and histamine were detected in supernatants of HLMC 3 min after challenge with anti-FcepsilonRI or anti-IgE, and iSCF in supernatants rapidly declined after 30 min, whereas histamine remained unchanged for 120 min. HPLC and electrospray mass spectrometry (ES/MS) analysis of recombinant human SCF1-166 (18,656. 9 +/- 0.9 Da) treated with chymase showed a polypeptide of 17,977.1 +/- 0.6 Da and a minor component of 697.4 +/- 0.1 Da generated by specific cleavage at Phe159. SCF1-166 and SCF1-159 similarly activated HLMC, potentiated anti-IgE-induced activation of these cells, and stimulated HLMC chemotaxis. SCF159-166 had no effect on mast cells. Western blot analysis of supernatants of anti-IgE-activated HLMC incubated with recombinant human SCF1-166 showed that SCF1-166 was rapidly cleaved to SCF1-159 and SCF1-144. Experiments with supernatants of anti-IgE-activated HLMC incubated with SCF1-166 yielded similar results. In conclusion, SCF is stored in mast cell secretory granules and is immunologically released by human mast cells. SCF1-166 is rapidly and specifically cleaved to SCF1-159 by chymase, which retains its biological effect on mast cells. SCF is also cleaved by other proteases to several SCF species whose possible biological activities remain to be established.     

Paracloacal glands of Alligator mississippiensis: A histological and histochemical study

The histology of the paracloacal 'musk' glands of adult American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) is described. The gland is a single secretory sac with a single duct and a central lumen partially occluded by a central, cylindrical conglomerate of cells and secretion product. The capsule of the gland consists of an outer layer of smooth muscle and an inner layer of connective tissue containing collagen and elastin fibres. Septa carrying blood vessels radiate from the connective tissue layer of the capsule to the border of the central conglomerate. Parenchymal cells containing lipid droplets enlarge from the periphery to the centre of the gland. Secretions formed by degeneration of cells in the central cylinder are concentrated near the secretory duct. Histochemical tests indicate lipids but not mucopolysaccharides in the glandular exudate.