Winter bud content according to position in 3-year-old branching systems of 'Granny Smith' apple

An investigation was made of the number of preformed organs in winter buds of 3-year-old reiterated complexes of the 'Granny Smith' cultivar. Winter bud content was studied with respect to bud position: terminal buds were compared on both long shoots and spurs according to branching order and shoot age, while axillary buds were compared between three zones (distal, median and proximal) along 1-year-old annual shoots in order 1. The percentage of winter buds that differentiated into inflorescences was determined and the flowers in each bud were counted for each bud category. The other organ categories considered were scales and leaf primordia. The results confirmed that a certain number of organs must be initiated before floral differentiation occurred. The minimum limit was estimated at about 15 organs on average, including scales. Total number of lateral organs formed was shown to vary with both bud position and meristem age, increasing from newly formed meristems to 1- and 2-year-old meristems on different shoot types. These differences in bud organogenesis depending on bud position, were consistent with the morphogenetic gradients observed in apple tree architecture. Axillary buds did not contain more than 15 organs on average and this low organogenetic activity of the meristems was related to a low number of flowers per bud. In contrast, the other bud categories contained more than 15 differentiated organs on average and a trade-off was observed between leaf and flower primordia. The ratio between the number of leaf and flower primordia per bud varied with shoot type. When the terminal buds on long shoots and spurs were compared, those on long shoots showed more flowers and a higher ratio of leaf to flower primordia.     

Changes of endogenous hormones in lateral buds of chrysanthemum during their outgrowth

The character of branching for two chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium) cvs. Jinghai and Jingyun was observed, and the changes of endogenous hormones in apical and lateral buds were investigated to determine the relationship between the pattern of hormone distribution, apical dominance, and lateral bud outgrowth. The growth rate of Jinghai lateral buds was higher than that of Jingyun. In vegetative growth stage, IAA level in apical buds of Jingyun was significantly higher than in Jinghai. After flower induction, IAA level in apical buds of two cultivars decreased remarkably, but the IAA level decreased in Jingyun faster than in Jinghai. These results showed that the higher was the IAA level in apical buds the stronger was inhibition of lateral bud outgrowth. An increase in IAA and iP/iPA and a decrease in ABA concentrations were closely associated with lateral bud growth alterations in chrysanthemum.     

Modelling branching patterns on 1-year-old trunks of six apple cultivars

The structure resulting from branching on 1-year-old apple tree trunks was analysed in a set of apple cultivars with diverse branching and fruiting habits. Four different lateral types borne on successive nodes were observed when vegetative and flowering fates, as well as sylleptic and proleptic branching, were taken into account. The location and grouping of lateral types along the trunk were analysed for all cultivars, but are detailed for one cultivar only. This cultivar showed a succession of zones, each zone being characterized by its composition of lateral types. Statistical models-hidden semi-Markov chains-were built to take this structure into account and to characterize the cultivar's specific branching pattern. The models showed that most of the branching zones had a similar location in the different cultivars, even though zone composition and zone length differed among cultivars. On a more detailed scale, the nodes bearing a lateral, regardless of its type, were frequently followed by latent buds. The validity of the models and their biological interpretation are discussed with respect to parent shoot dynamics, hormonal gradients and competition between neighbouring buds.     

Bud Structure in Relation to Shoot Morphology and Position on the Vegetative Annual Shoots of Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)

The length and basal diameter of all lateral and terminal budsof vegetative annual shoots of 7-year-oldJuglans regia treeswere measured. All buds were dissected and numbers of cataphylls,embryonic leaves and leaf primordia were recorded. Each axillarybud was ranked according to the position of its associated leaffrom the apex to the base of its parent shoot. Bud size andcontent were analysed in relation to bud position and were comparedwith the size and number of leaves of shoots in equivalent positionswhich extended during the following growing season. Length andbasal diameter of axillary buds varied according to their positionon the parent shoot. Terminal buds contained more embryonicleaves than any axillary bud. The number of leaves was smallerfor apical and basal axillary buds than for buds in intermediatepositions on the parent shoot only. All new extended shootswere entirely preformed in the buds that gave rise to them.Lateral shoots were formed in the median part of the parentshoot. These lateral shoots derived from buds which were largerthan both apical and basal ones. Copyright 2001 Annals of BotanyCompany Juglans regia L., Persian walnut tree, branching pattern, preformation, bud content, shoot morphology     

Effects of endogenous hormones on variation of shoot branching in a variety of non-heading Chinese cabbage and related gene expression

Shoot branching (tillering) primarily determines plant shoot architecture and has been studied in many plants. Shoot branching is an important trait in non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis Makino). The B. rapa ssp. chinensis var. multiceps exhibits unique and multiple shoot branching characteristics. Here, we analyzed the variation in shoot branching between ‘Maertou,’ with multiple shoot branching, and ‘Suzhouqing,’ a common variety. The levels of endogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), zeatin riboside and active gibberellins in the shoot meristem tissues of the two cultivars were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay during the vegetative growth stage. High levels of IAA maintained axillary bud dormancy and repressed axillary bud outgrowth allowing shoot branching to form in the vegetative stage in ‘Suzhouqing.’ In contrast, low levels of IAA did not inhibit axillary buds in ‘Maertou,’ while a high level of cytokinin promoted axillary bud growth and branch shoot development. Exogenous hormone (rac-GR24 and 6-benzylaminopurine) treatment showed that ‘Maertou’ was relatively sensitive to cytokinin, because the fold changes of cytokinin-responsive genes in ‘Maertou’ were significantly more frequent than those in ‘Suzhouqing’. Cytokinin was the direct regulator for axillary bud growth of ‘Maertou’. Compared with ‘Suzhouqing’, ‘Maertou’ was sensitive to cytokinin and this weakened the strigolactone–cytokinin branching pathway.     

Effects of ethylene and 1-MCP (1-methylcyclopropene) on bud and flower drop in mini <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phalaenopsis</Emphasis> cultivars

Phalaenopsis frequently exhibits bud drop during production and in response to adverse postharvest conditions. The effect of exogenous ethylene on bud drop of mini Phalaenopsis was studied and ethylene sensitivity of four cultivars was compared. Water content, membrane permeability and ABA (abscisic acid) content in floral buds and flowers were determined after ethylene treatment. Exogenous ethylene induced flower bud drop in all tested Phalaenopsis cultivars and the different cultivars showed distinct differences in ethylene sensitivity. The cultivar Sogo ‘Vivien’ exhibited the highest bud drop, water loss and change in membrane permeability in floral petals, while Sogo ‘Berry’ showed the lowest sensitivity. The ethylene inhibitor 1-MCP (1-methylcyclopropene) reduced ethylene-induced floral bud drop in the cultivar Sogo ‘Yenlin’. ABA content in floral buds was increased in response to ethylene and 1-MCP pretreatment inhibited the ethylene-induced increase in ABA levels efficiently. This finding suggests that the observed increase in ABA content during bud drop was mediated by ethylene. The interaction between ABA and ethylene is discussed.     

Apple shoot architecture: evidence for strong variability of bud size and composition and hydraulics within a branching zone

* In the apple tree (Malus domestica), shoot architecture - the distribution of lateral bud types and growth along the parent shoot - has been extensively investigated. The distal zone of a shoot is characterized by a high proportion of vegetative or floral axillary branches mixed with latent buds and aborted laterals. The hypothesis tested here was that bud development was related to hydraulic conductance of the sap pathway to the bud, independently of an acrotonic (proximal vs distal) effect. * The distal zone of 1-yr-old shoots was studied on five cultivars for bud size and composition (number of appendages) and hydraulic conductance before bud burst. * Bud size, composition and hydraulic conductance were highly variable for all cultivars. A positive correlation was demonstrated between both the number of cataphylls and green-leaf primordia, and hydraulic conductance. Cultivar and bud size affected the intercept of these relationships more than the slope, suggesting similar scaling between these variables, but different hydraulic efficiencies. A great proportion of small buds were also characterized by null values of hydraulic conductance. * This study suggests that hydraulically mediated competition exists between adjacent buds within the same branching zone, prefiguring the variability of lateral types in the following growing season. It is hypothesized that this developmental patterning is driven by hydraulic characteristics of the whole metamer, including the subtending leaf, during bud development.     

Spatial and temporal changes in multiple hormone groups during lateral bud release shortly following apex decapitation of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) seedlings

Although the co-ordination of promotive root-sourced cytokinin (CK) and inhibitory shoot apex-sourced auxin (IAA) is central to all current models on lateral bud dormancy release, control by those hormones alone has appeared inadequate in many studies. Thus it was hypothesized that the IAA : CK model is the central control but that it must be considered within the relevant timeframe leading to lateral bud release and against a backdrop of interactions with other hormone groups. Therefore, IAA and a wide survey of cytokinins (CKs), were examined along with abscisic acid (ABA) and polyamines (PAs) in released buds, tissue surrounding buds and xylem sap at 1 and 4 h after apex removal, when lateral buds of chickpea are known to break dormancy. Three potential lateral bud growth inhibitors, IAA, ABA and cis -zeatin 9-riboside (ZR), declined sharply in the released buds and xylem following decapitation. This is in contrast to potential dormancy breaking CKs like trans -ZR and trans -zeantin 9-riboside 5'phosphate (ZRMP), which represented the strongest correlative changes by increasing 3.5-fold in xylem sap and 22-fold in buds. PAs had not changed significantly in buds or other tissues after 4 h, so they were not directly involved in the breaking of bud dormancy. Results from the xylem and surrounding tissues indicated that bud CK increases resulted from a combination synthesis in the bud and selective loading of CK nucleotides into the xylem from the root.     

Asian chestnut gall wasp in Tuscany: gall characteristics,egg distribution and chestnut cultivar susceptibility

• 1 Preliminary investigations were carried out on Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu on Castanea sativa Miller in Tuscany to assess variations in gall characteristics in coppice and high forest at two crown heights (height < 2 or 2–6 m), influence of bud size and bud position on oviposition rates and susceptibility of three cultivars.
• 2 Gall size may depend on various factors, including wasp population density. In the present study area, small galls (with one or two cells) were the most numerous in 2008, whereas larger galls (with more than three cells) prevailed in 2009.
• 3 Dryocosmus kuriphilus oviposition occurrence was influenced by both bud size and bud position. Buds with eggs tended to be larger in size compared with bud without eggs, suggesting that D. kuriphilus females prefer to lay eggs in larger buds (approximately 6 mm³) compared with smaller buds (approximately 3 mm³). The mean number of eggs per bud tended to decrease from the apical bud toward the basal bud.
• 4 Three C. sativa cultivars, Carpinese, Fusca and Cesurone, were examined. Fusca grafts had significantly more galls compared with Carpinese and Cesurone, whereas Cesurone grafts had more larvae per bud compared with Carpinese and Fusca. Overall, the Carpinese cultivar may be less susceptible to D. kuriphilus galling compared with the Fusca and Cesurone cultivars.

     

Regeneration of plantlets from mature embryo calli of Western Ghats land race cultivar of rice, Oryza sativa L

The Malnad region located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka is known for the cultivation of indigenous rain fed land race cultivar of rice. The present study was to investigate the callogenic and caulogenic potentialities of the two indigenous rice cultivar namely Karimundaga and Kanadatumba using dehusked mature embryo explants. For callus and shoot bud differentiation, the explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2,4-D (1-3 mg/L), IAA (1-2 mg/L), Kn (1-4 mg/L) and BAP (1-4 mg/L). The morphogenic potentialities of the two rice cultivar differed in texture of callus. In both the cultivar callogenic frequency was optimized at 1 mg/L 2,4-D concentration, it was 94% in Karimundaga and 58% in Kanadatumba. Supplementation of IAA either alone (1-2 mg/L) or in combination with Kn or BAP at 1 to 4 mg/L concentration of each induces shoot bud differentiation from the calli. In the cultivar Karimundaga caulogenic frequency was highest (10.60 +/- 2.55) at 1.0 mg/L IAA and 4.0 mg/L BAP concentration. While in the cultivar Kanadatumba highest number of shoot buds (7.90 +/- 2.69) was differentiated at 1.0 mg/L IAA and 4.0 mg/L Kn concentration. The calli derived regenerants were successfully acclimatized in the greenhouse and agro-morphological variations were evaluated. The growth characteristics and yield related parameters exhibited by in vitro plants were lower than the in vivo plants.     

影响辣椒离体再生芽伸长因素研究

以辣椒子叶为外植体,比较不同浓度BA和IAA激素组合对辣椒再生芽诱导的差异,利用筛选出的高效芽诱导培养基为基础,研究了赤霉素、芽诱导时间、培养基有机成分、不同激素组合和品种等因素对辣椒不定芽伸长的影响。结果表明:不同基因型辣椒子叶再生能力不同,BA3.0mg.L-1 IAA0.5mg.L-1的激素配比对不定芽诱导频率最高;不定芽的伸长百分率随着GA3浓度的增加而增加,GA3的适合浓度为1.0～2.0mg.L-1;不定芽诱导时间对不定芽的伸长有一定的影响,诱导21d的不定芽,其伸长频率明显高于诱导14d的不定芽;B5有机成分在辣椒不定芽的伸长中效果优于MS有机成分;激素组合对不定芽伸长有一定的影响,Zeatin GA3激素组合对伸长效果最好,BA IAA GA3伸长效果较好,BA PAA(苯乙酸,phenylaceticacid) GA3伸长效果次之;不同品种辣椒不定芽的伸长能力有一定差异,楚风和苏椒五号再生芽伸长能力最佳。与IAA和NAA相比,IBA对再生芽生根效果较好。     

“Lateral Control”: Phytohormone Relations in the Conifer Treetop and the Short- and Long-Term Effects of Bud Excision in Abies nordmanniana

In a conifer tree, such as Nordmann fir, Abies nordmanniana Spach, the leader bud and its immediate surroundings play a decisive role in crown architecture. As subapical branch buds are segregated from the leader meristem, resource allocation between ortho- and plagiotropic growth is determined. The relationship between treetop buds in young trees was studied in the natural state and after surgical removal in early July of either the leader bud (decapitation) or the subapical whorl branch buds (destipitation). The two bud types showed consistent cytokinin profile differences but similar seasonal dynamics in cytokinins and auxin (IAA). After bud excision, ZRP increased dramatically in the subapical stem within 1 h, followed by ZR within 1 week. Supernormal levels of ZR were maintained through autumn and persisted in spring in the destipitated trees, but had returned to normal in the decapitated trees. The treetop buds remaining after bud excision experienced an immediate decrease in most cytokinins, followed, however, by a large surplus later in the season. The following spring this high level persisted in the leader bud of destipitated trees, but not in whorl buds of decapitated trees. Conspicuous growth pattern changes followed from destipitation, but few from decapitation. Growth reactions suggest that resource allocation to main branch buds inhibits leader growth in normal trees, a kind of “lateral control.” Auxin and ABA content in buds and stems was largely unaffected by treatments. Data suggest that subapical leader tissues beneath the apical bud group are a primary source of cytokinin regulation.     

Genotypic differences in branching pattern and fruiting habit in common walnut (Juglans regia L.)

Architectural analysis of 840 Slovenian walnut (Juglans regia L.) genotypes was performed to determine the most typical and frequent morphological types and to evaluate their vegetative and generative potential. Four branching and fruiting patterns (I-IV) were detected. A 3-year-old fruiting branch, consisting of a 3-year-old shoot plus corresponding 2-year-old and 1-year-old shoots, was used as a structural unit for quantitative analysis. In the intermediate fruit-bearing types with mesotonic and acrotonic branching pattern (types II and III), the total lengths of 3-, 2- and 1-year-old shoots were 385 and 380 cm, respectively, compared with 275 and 253 cm in the terminal and lateral-fruiting types (types I and IV). In type I, 1-year-old shoots had significantly fewer nodes than in other types. In addition, they had a thinner basal diameter than types III and IV, and their angles were the most erect (39 degrees ). Only 0.4 out of 3.6 1-year-old shoots were flowering with one mixed bud with 1.9 female flowers. In type IV, 2-year-old shoots had significantly more nodes and a larger basal diameter than other types. One-year-old shoots in type IV are thicker than those in other types. Ratios between the number of flowering and the total number of 1-year-old shoots were 0.7 in type IV, 0.6 in type III, 0.5 in type II and 0.1 in type I. On 1-year-old shoots in type IV, 1.7 mixed buds with a mean of three female inflorescences per bud were counted. Consequently, the generative potential is highest in type IV and lowest in type I. In types II and III, growth and the ability to bear fruits are more balanced.     

Branch development in Lupinus angustifolius L.#II. Relationship with endogenous ABA, IAA and cytokinins in axillary and main stem buds

The concentrations of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), cytokinins (CK) and abscisic acid (ABA) were measured in buds of different regions (main stem and lateral branches) of Lupinus angustifolius L. (cv. Merrit) and at different stages in the development of branches. In lupin, branching patterns are the result of discrete regions of axillary branches (upper, middle and basal) which elongate at much different rates. Early in development only the main shoot elongates, followed usually by basal branch growth and then rapid upper branch growth. Branches in the middle of the main stem grow only weakly or fail to develop. Levels of IAA were generally high in the apical buds of slowly growing branches and low in buds from strongly growing branches, whereas CK levels showed the opposite relationship. CK:IAA ratio showed a closer relationship with the rate of growth of a particular branch better than the levels of either CK or IAA alone. During early stages of growth ABA concentration did not follow the rate of branch growth. However, later in development, where growth did not closely match the ratio of CK:IAA, ABA level showed a strong negative relationship with growth. A significant decrease in ABA was associated with continued strong growth of the main stem apex following a decline in CK:IAA ratio. Overall, the best relationship between the level of growth factors in apical buds and branching pattern in lupin was the ratio of CK:IAA, implying that high CK:IAA at a given bud would promote growth. ABA level appeared to play a secondary role, as a growth inhibitor.     

影响辣椒离体再生芽伸长因素研究(英文)

以辣椒子叶为外植体,比较不同浓度BA和IAA激素组合对辣椒再生芽诱导的差异,利用筛选出的高效芽诱导培养基为基础,研究了赤霉素、芽诱导时间、培养基有机成分、不同激素组合和品种等因素对辣椒不定芽伸长的影响。结果表明:不同基因型辣椒子叶再生能力不同,BA3.0mg·L^-1+IAA0.5mg·L^-1的激素配比对不定芽诱导频率最高;不定芽的伸长百分率随着GA₃浓度的增加而增加,GA₃的适合浓度为1.0～2.0mg·L^-1;不定芽诱导时间对不定芽的伸长有一定的影响,诱导21d的不定芽,其伸长频率明显高于诱导14d的不定芽;B5有机成分在辣椒不定芽的伸长中效果优于MS有机成分;激素组合对不定芽伸长有一定的影响,Zeatin+GA₃激素组合对伸长效果最好,BA+IAA+GA₃伸长效果较好,BA+PAA(苯乙酸,phenylaceticacid)+GA₃伸长效果次之;不同品种辣椒不定芽的伸长能力有一定差异,楚风和苏椒五号再生芽伸长能力最佳。与IAA和NAA相比,IBA对再生芽生根效果较好。     

喷施烯效唑对苹果顶芽激素水平和花芽分化的影响

用烯效唑(uniconazol,S3307)1 g/L喷洒“红富士“苹果树降低了顶芽IAA、GA1,3,4,7含量,提高了ZR、ABA含量,从而提高了ZR/IAA、ZR/GA1,3,4,7、ABA/IAA和ABA/GA1,3,4,7比值.烯效唑处理增加了花芽形成百分率,加速了花芽分化的进程,缩短了花芽形成的延续时期,但对花芽生理孕育临界时期长短没有影响.烯效唑处理对花芽的节位数没有影响,但使叶芽节位数增加了1节.     

Effect of phytoregulators and physiological characteristics of the explants on micropropagation of Maytenus ilicifolia

Micropropagated shoots of Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. were obtained from axillary buds cultured in Murashige & Skoog medium supplemented with 13.3 M 6-benzyladenine (BA). Addition of 1.1 M 1-indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) to the medium increased shoot elongation. The number of shoots formed was influenced by BA concentration, degree of juvenility of the explant, and by bud explant position on the stem. Cultures of buds taken from stem parts located close to the shoot tip yielded more callus than shoots, whereas axillary buds at distant positions from the apical bud yielded more shoots.Abbreviations BA 6-benzyladenine - IAA indole-3-acetic-acid     

棉花花芽分化时期茎尖内源激素的变化

实验结果表明,从子叶展平后到肉眼可花芽（现蕾）,所测几种激素（ABA、IAA、GA3、iPA、ZR）的含量均表现出明显的动态变化,而且在花芽分化临界期表现出最显著的变化（出现高峰或出现低峰）。推测所测几种激素均与花芽分化有密切关系。其中ABA、GA3和CTK（iPA、ZR）在花芽分化临界期时,其含量变化均呈现出一个高峰;而IAA则在花芽分化临界期时出现一个低峰。经比较分析得知,随着花芽分化的进行,ABA/IAA、GA3／IAA、CTK／IAA均表现一个较明显的变化规律。即从子叶展平时起,其比值开始上升,到花芽开始分化时达到一个峰值,之后逐渐下降,并维持在一个较稳定的水平。显然,ABA／IAA、GA3／IAA、CTK／IAA在棉花的花芽分化过程中起着重要的调控作用。由此推测,增加植物体内的ABA、GA3、CTK的含量或降低IAA的含量,都可以促进棉花的花芽分化;反之则抑制棉花的花芽分化。