Are correlations among foliar traits in ferns consistent with those in the seed plants?

Broad-based studies of gymnosperms and angiosperms reveal consistent and functionally significant correlations among foliar traits such as leaf mass per area (LMA), maximum photosynthetic rate (A(area)), foliar nitrogen (N(area)), foliar chlorophyll (Chl) and leaf longevity. To assess the generality of these relationships, we studied 20 fern species growing in the understorey of a temperate deciduous forest. We found that foliar N(area) increases with LMA, and that foliar N(area) and A(area) are positively correlated with one another, as are foliar N(area) and Chl. The ferns in general have very low LMA compared with most seed plants; A(area), N(area) and Chl are below median values for seed plants but are not extreme. Species with overwintering fronds have significantly higher LMA than species with fronds that senesce at the end of the growing season, as well as a significantly higher C : N ratio in frond tissue and relatively high foliar N on an areal basis. Correlations among foliar traits associated with gas exchange in these forest understorey ferns are in accordance with patterns reported for seed plants, suggesting a high degree of functional constraint on the interrelationships among key elements in foliar design.     

The nocturnal larvae of a specialist folivore perform better on Chromolaena odorata leaves from a shaded environment

Increasing evidence suggests that individuals of the same plant species occurring in different microhabitats often show a degree of phenotypic and phytochemical variation. Consequently, insect herbivores associated with such plant species must deal with environment‐mediated changes or variability in the traits of their host plants. In this study, we examined the effects of habitat condition (shaded vs. full‐sun habitats) on plant traits and leaf characteristics of the invasive alien plant, Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson (Asteraceae). In addition, the performance was evaluated in two generations of a specialist folivore, Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae), on leaves obtained from both shaded and full‐sun habitats. The study was done in an area where the insect was introduced as a biological control agent. Leaves growing in shade were less tough, had higher water and nitrogen content, and lower total non‐structural carbohydrate, compared with leaves growing in full sun. Plants growing in shade had longer leaves and were taller, but above‐ground biomass was significantly reduced compared with plants growing in full sun. In both generations (parents and offspring), P. insulata developed faster and had larger pupal mass, increased growth rate, and higher fecundity when reared on shaded foliage compared with full‐sun foliage. Although immature survival and adult longevity did not differ between habitats, Maw's host suitability index indicated that shaded leaves were more suitable for the growth and reproduction of P. insulata. We suggest that the benefits obtained by P. insulata feeding on shaded foliage are associated with reduced toughness and enhanced nitrogen and water content of leaves. These results demonstrate that light‐mediated changes in plant traits and leaf characteristics can affect insect folivore performance.     

Relative importance of photosynthetic traits and allocation patterns as correlates of seedling shade tolerance of 13 tropical trees

Among 13 tropical tree species on Barro Colorado Island, species with high seedling mortality rates during the first year in shade had higher reltive growth rates (RGR) from germination to 2 months in both sun (23% full sun) and shade [2%, with and without lowered red: far red (R:FR) ratio] than shade tolerant species. Species with higher RGR in sun also had higher RGR in shade. These interspecific trends could be explained by differences in morphological traits and allocation paterns among species. Within each light regime, seedlings of shade-intolerant species had lower root: shoot ratios, higher leaf mass per unit area, and higher leaf area ratios (LAR) than shade tolerant species. In contrast, leaf gas exchange characteristics, or acclimation potential in these traits, had no relationship with seedling mortality rates in shade. In both shade tolerant and intolerant species, light saturated photosynthesis rates, dark respiration, and light compensation points were higher for sungrown seedlings than for shade-grown seedlings. Differences in R:FR ratio in shade did not affect gas exchange, allocation patterns, or growth rates of any species. Survival of young tree seedlings in shade did not depend on higher net photosynthesis or biomass accumulation rates in shade. Rather, species with higher RGR died faster in shade than species with lower RGR. This trend could be explained if survival depends on morphological characteristics likely to enhance defense against herbivores and pathogens, such as dense and tough leaves, a well-established root system, and high wood density. High construction costs for these traits, and low LAR as a consequence of these traits, should result in lower rates of whole-plant carbon gain and RGR for shade tolerant species than shade-intolerant species in shade as well as in sun.     

Foliar trichomes, boundary layers, and gas exchange in 12 species of epiphytic Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae)

We examined the relationships between H2O and CO2 gas exchange parameters and leaf trichome cover in 12 species of Tillandsia that exhibit a wide range in trichome size and trichome cover. Previous investigations have hypothesized that trichomes function to enhance boundary layers around Tillandsioid leaves thereby buffering the evaporative demand of the atmosphere and retarding transpirational water loss. Data presented herein suggest that trichome-enhanced boundary layers have negligible effects on Tillandsia gas exchange, as indicated by the lack of statistically significant relationships in regression analyses of gas exchange parameters and trichome cover. We calculated trichome and leaf boundary layer components, and their associated effects on H2O and CO2 gas exchange. The results further indicate trichome-enhanced boundary layers do not significantly reduce transpirational water loss. We conclude that although the trichomes undoubtedly increase the thickness of the boundary layer, the increase due to Tillandsioid trichomes is inconsequential in terms of whole leaf boundary layers, and any associated reduction in transpirational water loss is also negligible within the whole plant gas exchange pathway.     

The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence

Gymnosperms, and conifers in particular, are sometimes very productive trees yet angiosperms dominate most temperate and tropical vegetation. Current explanations for angiosperm success emphasize the advantages of insect pollination and seed dispersal by animals for the colonization of isolated habitats. Differences between gymnosperm and angiosperm reproductive and vegetative growth rates have been largely ignored. Gymnosperms are all woody, perennial and usually have long reproductive cycles. Their leaves are not as fully vascularized as those of angiosperms and are more stereotyped in shape and size. Gymnosperm tracheids are generally more resistant to solute flow than angiosperm vessels. A consequence of the less efficient transport system is that maximum growth rates of gymnosperms are lower than maximum growth rates of angiosperms in well lit, well watered habitats. Gymnosperm seedlings may be particularly uncompetitive since their growth depends on a single cohort of relatively inefficient leaves. Later, some gymnosperms attain a higher productivity than co-occurring angiosperm trees by accumulating several cohorts of leaves with a higher total leaf area. These functional constraints on gymnosperm growth rates suggest that gymnosperms will be restricted to areas where growth of angiosperm competitors is reduced, for example, by cold or nutrient shortages. Biogeographic evidence supports this prediction since conifers are largely confined to high latitudes and elevations or nutrient-poor soils. Experimental studies show that competition in the regeneration niche (between conifer seedlings and angiosperm herbs and shrubs) is common and significantly affects conifer growth and survival, Fast-growing angiosperms, especially herbs and shrubs, may also change the frequency of disturbance regimes thereby excluding slower-growing gymnosperms. Shade-tolerant and early successional conifers share similar characteristics of slow initial growth and low plasticity to a change in resources. Shade-tolerant gymnosperms would be expected to occur only where forest openings are small or otherwise unsuitable for rapid filling by fast-growing angiosperm trees, lianas or shrubs. The limited evidence available suggests that shade-tolerant conifers are confined to forests with small gap sizes where large disturbances are very rare. The regeneration hypothesis for gymnosperm exclusion by angiosperms is consistent with several aspects of the fossil record such as the early disappearance of gymnosperms from early successional environments where competition with angiosperms would have been most severe. However there are unresolved difficulties in interpreting process from paleoecological pattern which prevent the testing of alternative hypotheses.     

Leaf economic traits from fossils support a weedy habit for early angiosperms

Many key aspects of early angiosperms are poorly known, including their ecophysiology and associated habitats. Evidence for fast-growing, weedy angiosperms comes from the Early Cretaceous Potomac Group, where angiosperm fossils, some of them putative herbs, are found in riparian depositional settings. However, inferences of growth rate from sedimentology and growth habit are somewhat indirect; also, the geographic extent of a weedy habit in early angiosperms is poorly constrained. Using a power law between petiole width and leaf mass, we estimated the leaf mass per area (LMA) of species from three Albian (110-105 Ma) fossil floras from North America (Winthrop Formation, Patapsco Formation of the Potomac Group, and the Aspen Shale). All LMAs for angiosperm species are low (<125 g/m(2); mean = 76 g/m(2)) but are high for gymnosperm species (>240 g/m(2); mean = 291 g/m(2)). On the basis of extant relationships between LMA and other leaf economic traits such as photosynthetic rate and leaf lifespan, we conclude that these Early Cretaceous landscapes were populated with weedy angiosperms with short-lived leaves (<12 mo). The unrivalled capacity for fast growth observed today in many angiosperms was in place by no later than the Albian and likely played an important role in their subsequent ecological success.     

The effect of canopy gaps on growth and morphology of seedlings of rain forest species

Summary Growth and morphology of seedlings of ten tropical rain forest species were studied at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Seedlings were grown in three environmental conditions: the shaded forest understorey (FU, receiving 0.9–2.3% of the daily photosynthetic photon flux, PF, above the canopy), a small canopy gap of approx. 50 m² (SG, receiving 2.1–6.1% of daily PF), and a large canopy gap of approx. 500 m² (LG, receiving 38.6–53.4% of daily PF). The growth of all species was enhanced in gaps, and in LG the effect was stronger than in SG. Plants grown in LG had a sunplant morphology, with a high root-shoot ratio (R/S), a high specific leaf weight (SLW) and a low leaf area ratio (LAR). Plants grown in SG or FU showed a shade-plant morphology, with a low R/S, a low SLW and a high LAR. Growth responses varied from species unable to grow in the shade but with strong growth in the sun, to species with relatively high growth rates in both shade and sun conditions. Shade tolerant species were able to grow in the shade because of a relatively high unit leaf rate. The pioneerCecropia had a high growth rate in LG because of a high LAR. Most species showed a complex growth response in which they resembled the shade intolerant extreme in some aspects of the response, and the shade tolerant extreme in other aspects.     

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL MODIFICATIONS OF PLANTAGO MAJOR (PLANTAGINACEAE) IN RESPONSE TO LIGHT CONDITIONS

Physiological and morphological differences between Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae) growing in full sunlight and shaded conditions were examined. Photosynthesis of isolated leaves was saturated by irradiance around 300 μE m^−-2 sec^−-1 and 170 μE m^−-2 sec^−-1, respectively. In contrast to previous studies of sun/shade leaf responses, initial slopes of curves from shaded plants are significantly less than those taken from full-sun plants. Within the 400–500 nm and 600–700 nm ranges, leaves 5.0 cm or longer are essentially opaque, transmitting less than 1.25% of incident light. Chlorophyll content per unit leaf area is nearly equivalent for leaves from plants growing under the two extremes in light levels. Morphometric comparisons indicate shaded plants bear fewer leaves, have less leaf overlap, lower total leaf area, and longer petioles than full-sun plants. Leaf elongation rates are lower and the duration between the emergence of successive leaves is longer in shaded plants. Computer analyses of both types of rosette morphology reveal shaded plants have an equal or greater capacity to intercept light than full-sun plants, principally because of the minimization of leaf overlap and the large variation in the deflection angles of leaves in shaded rosette morphologies. Simulations, calculated on the basis of light interception, and taking into account the transition between photosynthate-importing and -exporting leaves, predict relative growth rates for full-sun and shaded rosette morphologies that are in reasonable agreement with empirically determined leaf growth rates. However, the data indicate that significant physiological and morphological differences exist among leaves from a single rosette, and among developmentally comparable leaves from rosettes growing under different ambient light environments. Differences among leaves on a single plant must be accommodated in computerized techniques attempting to simulate light interception and its consequences on potential growth rates.     

Mesozoic plants and the problem of angiosperm ancestry

Krassilov, V.: Mesozoic plants and the problem of angiosperm ancestry.
Trends leading to the foliar and floral structures of angiosperms may be deduced by comparison with Mesozoic gymnosperms. The Debeya-Fontainea group of Cretaceous angiosperms closely resembles the Early Mesozoic Scoresbya group of pteridosperms with regard to leaf characters. The bivalved capsules of Jurassic Leptostrobus , with stigmatic bands, are regarded as the forerunners of certain types of angiosperm carpels. The angiospermous characters arose in several lineages of gymnosperms and were probably accumulated by non-sexual transfer of genetic material. The earliest angiosperm mega- and microfossils have been reported from the Middle and Upper Jurassic of the northern hemisphere. Most of these angiosperms were confined to chaparral-like communities dominated by shrubby conifers and cycadophytes. The rise of angiosperms was promoted by the climatic changes and the simultaneous rise of mammals.     

Ecophysiological responses to simulated canopy gaps of two tree species of contrasting shade tolerance in elevated CO2

1. One-year-old seedlings of shade tolerant Acer rubrum and intolerant Betula papyrifera were grown in ambient and twice ambient (elevated) CO₂, and in full sun and 80% shade for 90 days. The shaded seedlings received 30-min sun patches twice during the course of the day. Gas exchange and tissue–water relations were measured at midday in the sun plants and following 20 min of exposure to full sun in the shade plants to determine the effect of elevated CO₂ on constraints to sun-patch utilization in these species.
2. Elevated CO₂ had the largest stimulation of photosynthesis in B. papyrifera sun plants and A. rubrum shade plants.
3. Higher photosynthesis per unit leaf area in sun plants than in shade plants of B. papyrifera was largely owing to differences in leaf morphology. Acer rubrum exhibited sun/shade differences in photosynthesis per unit leaf mass consistent with biochemical acclimation to shade.
4. Betula papyrifera exhibited CO₂ responses that would facilitate tolerance to leaf water deficits in large sun patches, including osmotic adjustment and higher transpiration and stomatal conductance at a given leaf-water potential, whereas A. rubrum exhibited large increases in photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency.
5. Results suggest that species of contrasting successional ranks respond differently to elevated CO₂, in ways that are consistent with the habitats in which they typically occur.     

Extraordinarily high leaf selenium to sulfur ratios define 'Se-accumulator' plants

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Selenium (Se) and sulfur (S) exhibit similar chemical properties. In flowering plants (angiosperms) selenate and sulfate are acquired and assimilated by common transport and metabolic pathways. It is hypothesized that most angiosperm species show little or no discrimination in the accumulation of Se and S in leaves when their roots are supplied a mixture of selenate and sulfate, but some, termed Se-accumulator plants, selectively accumulate Se in preference to S under these conditions. METHODS: This paper surveys Se and S accumulation in leaves of 39 angiosperm species, chosen to represent the range of plant Se accumulation phenotypes, grown hydroponically under identical conditions. RESULTS: The data show that, when supplied a mixture of selenate and sulfate: (1) plant species differ in both their leaf Se ([Se](leaf)) and leaf S ([S](leaf)) concentrations; (2) most angiosperms show little discrimination for the accumulation of Se and S in their leaves and, in non-accumulator plants, [Se](leaf) and [S](leaf) are highly correlated; (3) [Se](leaf) in Se-accumulator plants is significantly greater than in other angiosperms, but [S](leaf), although high, is within the range expected for angiosperms in general; and (4) the Se/S quotient in leaves of Se-accumulator plants is significantly higher than in leaves of other angiosperms. CONCLUSION: The traits of extraordinarily high [Se](leaf) and leaf Se/S quotients define the distinct elemental composition of Se-accumulator plants.     

Physiological mechanisms drive differing foliar calcium content in ferns and angiosperms

Recent evidence points to ferns containing significantly lower contents of foliar calcium and other cations than angiosperms. This is especially true of more ancient ‘non-polypod’ fern lineages, which predate the diversification of angiosperms. Calcium is an important plant nutrient, the lack of which can potentially slow plant growth and litter decomposition, and alter soil invertebrate communities. The physiological mechanisms limiting foliar calcium (Ca) content in ferns are unknown. While there is a lot we do not know about Ca uptake and transport in plants, three physiological processes are likely to be important. We measured transpiration rate, cation exchange capacity, and leaching loss to determine which process most strongly regulates foliar Ca content in a range of fern and co-occurring understory angiosperm species from a montane Hawaiian rainforest. We found higher instantaneous and lifetime (corrected for leaf lifespan) transpiration rates in angiosperms relative to ferns. Ferns preferentially incorporated Ca into leaves relative to strontium, which suggests that root or stem cation exchange capacity differs between ferns and angiosperms, potentially affecting calcium transport in plants. There were no differences in foliar Ca leaching loss between groups. Among the physiological mechanisms measured, foliar Ca was most strongly correlated with leaf-level transpiration rate and leaf lifespan. This suggests that inter-specific differences in a leaf’s lifetime transpiration may play a significant role in determining plant nutrition.     

Salinity stress constrains photosynthesis in Fraxinus ornus more when growing in partial shading than in full sunlight: consequences for the antioxidant defence system

Background and Aims

A major challenge in plant ecophysiology is understanding the effects of multiple sub-optimal environmental conditions on plant performance. In most Mediterranean areas soil salinity builds up during the summer because of low availability of soil water coupled with hot temperatures. Although sunlight and soil salinity may strongly interact in determining a plant''s performance, this has received relatively little attention.

Methods

Two-year-old seedlings of Fraxinus ornus were grown outdoors in pots during a Mediterranean summer in either 45 % (shaded plants) or 100 % (sun plants) sunlight irradiance and were supplied with either deionized water or deionized water plus 75 mm NaCl. Morpho-anatomical traits, water and ionic relations, gas exchange and photosystem II performance, concentrations of individual carotenoids, activity of antioxidant enzymes, concentrations of ascorbic acid and individual polyphenols were measured in leaves. Leaf oxidative stress and damage were estimated by in vivo analysis of stable free radicals and ultrastructural analyses.

Key Results

Leaf concentrations of potentially toxic ions did not markedly differ in shaded or sun plants in response to salinity. Leaves of sun plants displayed superior water use efficiency compared with leaves of shaded plants, irrespective of salinity treatment, and had both better stomatal control and higher CO₂ carboxylation efficiency than leaves of shaded plants. In the salt-treated groups, the adverse effects of excess midday irradiance were greater in shade than in sun plants. The activity of enzymes responsible for detoxifying hydrogen peroxide decreased in shaded plants and increased in sun plants as a result of salinity stress. In contrast, the activity of guaiacol peroxidase and the concentration of phenylpropanoids increased steeply in response to salinity in shaded plants but were unaffected in sun plants.

Conclusions

It is concluded that salinity may constrain the performance of plants growing under partial shading more severely than that of plants growing under full sun during summer. The results suggest co-ordination within the antioxidant defence network aimed at detoxifying salt-induced generation of reactive oxygen species.     

Organization of the root apical meristem in angiosperms

Although flowers, leaves, and stems of the angiosperms have understandably received more attention than roots, the growing root tips, or root apical meristems (RAMs), are organs that could provide insight into angiosperm evolution. We studied RAM organization across a broad spectrum of angiosperms (45 orders and 132 families of basal angiosperms, monocots, and eudicots) to characterize angiosperm RAMs and cortex development related to RAMs. Types of RAM organization in root tips of flowering plants include open RAMs without boundaries between some tissues in the growing tip and closed RAMs with distinct boundaries between apical regions. Epidermis origin is associated with the cortex in some basal angiosperms and monocots and with the lateral rootcap in eudicots and other basal angiosperms. In most angiosperm RAMs, initials for the central region of the rootcap, or columella, are distinct from the lateral rootcap and its initials. Slightly more angiosperm families have exclusively closed RAMs than exclusively open RAMs, but many families have representatives with both open and closed RAMs. Root tips with open RAMs are generally found in angiosperm families considered sister to other families; certain open RAMs may be ancestral in angiosperms.     

Plasticity in seedling morphology,biomass allocation and physiology among ten temperate tree species in response to shade is related to shade tolerance and not leaf habit

• Mechanisms of shade tolerance in tree seedlings, and thus growth in shade, may differ by leaf habit and vary with ontogeny following seed germination. To examine early responses of seedlings to shade in relation to morphological, physiological and biomass allocation traits, we compared seedlings of 10 temperate species, varying in their leaf habit (broadleaved versus needle‐leaved) and observed tolerance to shade, when growing in two contrasting light treatments – open (about 20% of full sunlight) and shade (about 5% of full sunlight).
• We analyzed biomass allocation and its response to shade using allometric relationships. We also measured leaf gas exchange rates and leaf N in the two light treatments.
• Compared to the open treatment, shading significantly increased traits typically associated with high relative growth rate (RGR) – leaf area ratio (LAR), specific leaf area (SLA), and allocation of biomass into leaves, and reduced seedling mass and allocation to roots, and net assimilation rate (NAR). Interestingly, RGR was not affected by light treatment, likely because of morphological and physiological adjustments in shaded plants that offset reductions of in situ net assimilation of carbon in shade. Leaf area‐based rates of light‐saturated leaf gas exchange differed among species groups, but not between light treatments, as leaf N concentration increased in concert with increased SLA in shade.
• We found little evidence to support the hypothesis of a increased plasticity of broadleaved species compared to needle‐leaved conifers in response to shade. However, an expectation of higher plasticity in shade‐intolerant species than in shade‐tolerant ones, and in leaf and plant morphology than in biomass allocation was supported across species of contrasting leaf habit.

     

Growth irradiance effects on photosynthesis and growth in two co-occurring shade-tolerant neotropical perennials of contrasting photosynthetic pathways

Dieffenbachia longispatha (C3) and Aechmea magdalenae (Crassulacean acid metabolism, CAM) are syntopic, neotropical forest perennials in central Panama that are restricted to shaded habitats. This is of particular interest for A. magdalenae because, like other understory CAM bromeliad species, it appears functionally and structurally to be better suited to life in full sun. Growth irradiance (GI) effects on photosynthesis and growth in both species were explored in the context of sun/shade trade-off concepts largely derived from studies of C3 plants. Potted plants were grown outdoors in 1, 55, and 100% full sun for 5 mo under well-watered conditions. While both species grew faster in high compared to low light, maximum relative growth rates (RGR) in full sun were still extremely slow with A. magdalenae showing a RGR approximately half that of D. longispatha. Photosynthetic capacity increased with GI in D. longispatha but not in A. magdalenae. Aechmea magdalenae responded to GI with shifts in the activity of the different CAM phases. Both species were photoinhibited in full sun, but more so in A. magdalenae. Despite possessing many traits considered adaptive in high light, these results suggest that A. magdalenae is unlikely to attain sufficient growth rates to thrive in productive, high-light habitats.     

Different leaf cost–benefit strategies of ferns distributed in contrasting light habitats of sub-tropical forests

Background and Aims Ferns are abundant in sub-tropical forests in southern China, with some species being restricted to shaded understorey of natural forests, while others are widespread in disturbed, open habitats. To explain this distribution pattern, we hypothesize that ferns that occur in disturbed forests (FDF) have a different leaf cost–benefit strategy compared with ferns that occur in natural forests (FNF), with a quicker return on carbon investment in disturbed habitats compared with old-growth forests.Methods We chose 16 fern species from contrasting light habitats (eight FDF and eight FNF) and studied leaf functional traits, including leaf life span (LLS), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations (N and P), maximum net photosynthetic rates (A), leaf construction cost (CC) and payback time (PBT), to conduct a leaf cost–benefit analysis for the two fern groups.Key Results The two groups, FDF and FNF, did not differ significantly in SLA, leaf N and P, and CC, but FDF had significantly higher A, greater photosynthetic nitrogen- and phosphorus-use efficiencies (PNUE and PPUE), and shorter PBT and LLS compared with FNF. Further, across the 16 fern species, LLS was significantly correlated with A, PNUE, PPUE and PBT, but not with SLA and CC.Conclusions Our results demonstrate that leaf cost–benefit analysis contributes to understanding the distribution pattern of ferns in contrasting light habitats of sub-tropical forests: FDF employing a quick-return strategy can pre-empt resources and rapidly grow in the high-resource environment of open habitats; while a slow-return strategy in FNF allows their persistence in the shaded understorey of old-growth forests.     

Angiosperm origin and early stages of seed plant evolution deduced from rRNA sequence comparisons

Summary Complete or partial nucleotide sequences of five different rRNA species, coded by nuclear (18S, 5.8S, and 5S) or chloroplast genomes (5S, 4.5S) from a number of seed plants were determined. Based on the sequence data, the phylogenetic dendrograms were built by two methods, maximum parsimony and compatibility. The topologies of the trees for different rRNA species are not fully congruent, but they share some common features. It may be concluded that both gymnosperms and angiosperms are monophyletic groups. The data obtained suggest that the divergence of all the main groups of extant gymnosperms occurred after the branching off of the angiosperm lineage. As the time of divergence of at least some of these gymnosperm taxa is traceable back to the early Carboniferous, it may be concluded that the genealogical splitting of gymnosperm and angiosperm lineages occurred before this event, at least 360 million years ago, i.e., much earlier than the first angiosperm fossils were dated. Ancestral forms of angiosperms ought to be searched for among Progymnospermopsida. Genealogical relationships among gymnosperm taxa cannot be deduced unambiguously on the basis of rRNA data. The only inference may be that the taxon Gnetopsida is an artificial one, andGnetum andEphedra belong to quite different lineages of gymnosperms. As to the phylogenetic position of the two Angiospermae classes, extant monocotyledons seem to be a paraphyletic group located near the root of the angiosperm branch; it emerged at the earliest stages of angiosperm evolution. We may conclude that either monocotyledonous characters arose independently more than once in different groups of ancient Magnoliales or that monocotyledonous forms rather than dicotyledonous Magnoliales were the earliest angiosperms. Judging by the rRNA trees, Magnoliales are the most ancient group among dicotyledons. The most ancient lineage among monocotyledons leads to modern Liliaceae.     

Photosynthesis and leaf morphology ofLiquidambar styraciflua L. under variable urban radiant-energy conditions

Diminished sunlight, characteristic of urban canyons, has been suggested as being potentially limiting to plant growth. This study investigated the response of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) to variable irradiance in a range of urban locations. Diurnal photosynthesis was measured in situ on mature trees, comparing an open site at an urban park with an urban canyon that received 4 h of midday sun in midsummer. Photosynthesis for trees growing in the canyon was lower both during shaded and sunlit periods compared with trees at the park. Photosynthesis of detached shoots in a growth chamber was greater in canyon than park foliage at low irradiance, indicating possible photosynthetic shade acclimation analogous to tree species growing in the forest understorey. Shoot and trunk growth and morphological characteristics were measured onL. styraciflua growing along boulevards at 15 additional urban sites and related to seasonal interception of solar radiation. Angular elevation and orientation of buildings and trees that defined the horizon topography at each site were used in modeling the potential irradiance of global shortwave radiation. Seasonal irradiance among sites ranged from 21% in the urban core to nearly 95% in outlying residential districts of that potentially received under an unobstructed horizon. Shade acclimation was confirmed by differences in leaf morphology, as foliage became flatter, thinner, and more horizontally oriented at sites with lower irradiance. Photosynthetic and morphological acclimation to shade did not compensate for lower available radiant energy as both shoot and trunk growth decreased at sites of lower irradiance. Unlike the forest understorey, the static light environment of urban canyons may subject shade-intolerant species such asL. styraciflua to chronic, low-radiant-energy stress.     

润楠属广布种和狭域种幼苗生理生态特征

润楠属植物属于基部被子植物类群,大部分物种局限分布于热带亚热带森林的潮湿生境,但也有些物种分布范围较广。本研究以润楠属11个物种的幼苗为材料,测定了一系列植物叶片水力学性状和解剖结构,包括:比叶重、叶片密度、气孔密度、叶脉密度、膨压丧失点水势、栅栏组织和海绵组织厚度等。结果表明:与其它分布在热带亚热带地区的被子植物相比,润楠属植物的叶脉密度较低,推测叶脉密度受强烈的进化限制;该属植物叶脉密度与气孔密度、栅栏和海绵组织的比值呈显著的正相关,表明该属植物能够维持叶片水平的水分供需平衡;广布种比狭域种具有更低的叶片膨压丧失点和更高的叶片密度,耐旱能力更强,但是比叶重差异不显著;叶片的膨压丧失点与物种的最大树高呈反比,即更高的物种叶片耐失水能力更强,说明植物叶片耐旱性与植物本身的遗传特性有关。本研究结果显示,叶片水力学性状可以较好地用于解释润楠属植物的地理分布。