Comparison of Ergot Alkaloid Biosynthesis Gene Clusters in Claviceps Species Indicates Loss of Late Pathway Steps in Evolution of C. fusiformis

The grass parasites Claviceps purpurea and Claviceps fusiformis produce ergot alkaloids (EA) in planta and in submerged culture. Whereas EA synthesis (EAS) in C. purpurea proceeds via clavine intermediates to lysergic acid and the complex ergopeptines, C. fusiformis produces only agroclavine and elymoclavine. In C. purpurea the EAS gene (EAS) cluster includes dmaW (encoding the first pathway step), cloA (elymoclavine oxidation to lysergic acid), and the lpsA/lpsB genes (ergopeptine formation). We analyzed the corresponding C. fusiformis EAS cluster to investigate the evolutionary basis for chemotypic differences between the Claviceps species. Other than three peptide synthetase genes (lpsC and the tandem paralogues lpsA1 and lpsA2), homologues of all C. purpurea EAS genes were identified in C. fusiformis, including homologues of lpsB and cloA, which in C. purpurea encode enzymes for steps after clavine synthesis. Rearrangement of the cluster was evident around lpsB, which is truncated in C. fusiformis. This and several frameshift mutations render CflpsB a pseudogene (CflpsB^Ψ). No obvious inactivating mutation was identified in CfcloA. All C. fusiformis EAS genes, including CflpsB^Ψ and CfcloA, were expressed in culture. Cross-complementation analyses demonstrated that CfcloA and CflpsB^Ψ were expressed in C. purpurea but did not encode functional enzymes. In contrast, CpcloA catalyzed lysergic acid biosynthesis in C. fusiformis, indicating that C. fusiformis terminates its EAS pathway at elymoclavine because the cloA gene product is inactive. We propose that the C. fusiformis EAS cluster evolved from a more complete cluster by loss of some lps genes and by rearrangements and mutations inactivating lpsB and cloA.     

A complex ergovaline gene cluster in epichloe endophytes of grasses

Clavicipitaceous fungal endophytes of the genera Epichlo? and Neotyphodium form symbioses with grasses of the subfamily Pooideae, in which they can synthesize an array of bioprotective alkaloids. Some strains produce the ergopeptine alkaloid ergovaline, which is implicated in livestock toxicoses caused by ingestion of endophyte-infected grasses. Cloning and analysis of a nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) gene from Neotyphodium lolii revealed a putative gene cluster for ergovaline biosynthesis containing a single-module NRPS gene, lpsB, and other genes orthologous to genes in the ergopeptine gene cluster of Claviceps purpurea and the clavine cluster of Aspergillus fumigatus. Despite conservation of gene sequence, gene order is substantially different between the N. lolii, C. purpurea, and A. fumigatus ergot alkaloid gene clusters. Southern analysis indicated that the N. lolii cluster was linked with previously identified ergovaline biosynthetic genes dmaW and lpsA. The ergovaline genes are closely associated with transposon relics, including retrotransposons and autonomous and nonautonomous DNA transposons. All genes in the cluster were highly expressed in planta, but expression was very low or undetectable in mycelia from axenic culture. This work provides a genetic foundation for elucidating biochemical steps in the ergovaline pathway, the ecological role of individual ergot alkaloid compounds, and the regulation of their synthesis in planta.     

Identification of fatty acids in submerged cultures of Claviceps species

Abstract Fatty acids were identified in the submerged mycelium of Claviceps purpurea, Claviceps paspali, Claviceps fusiformis and Claviceps sp. SD-58 by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and used for a chemotaxonomical study. A close relatedness was found between Claviceps sp. SD-58 and C. fusiformis . The composition of fatty acids in high-production mutants differed substantially from that of the parent strains. Fatty acid analysis is thus probably only applicable in the taxonomy of non-mutated isolates of Claviceps cultured under standard conditions.     

Use of a nonhomologous end joining deficient strain (Deltaku70) of the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea for identification of a nonribosomal peptide synthetase gene involved in ergotamine biosynthesis

The ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea uses mainly the nonhomologous-end-joining (NHEJ) system for integration of exogenous DNA, leading to a low frequency of homologous integration (1-2%). To improve gene targeting efficiency we deleted the C. purpurea ku70 gene in two different strains: the pathogenic strain 20.1 and the apathogenic, ergot alkaloid producing strain P1. The mutants were not impaired in vegetative and pathogenic development nor alkaloid production. Gene targeting efficiency was significantly increased (50-60%) in the Deltaku70 mutants. The P1 Deltaku70 strain (producing ergotamine and ergocryptine) was used for targeted deletion of lpsA1, one of the two trimodular NRPS genes present in the alkaloid gene cluster, encoding D-lysergyl peptide synthetases involved in formation of the tripeptide moiety of ergopeptines. Mutants lacking the lpsA1 gene were shown to be incapable of producing ergotamine but were still able to produce ergocryptine, proving that LpsA1 is involved in ergotamine biosynthesis.     

The determinant step in ergot alkaloid biosynthesis by an endophyte of perennial ryegrass

Many cool-season grasses harbor fungal endophytes in the genus Neotyphodium, which enhance host fitness, but some also produce metabolites--such as ergovaline--believed to cause livestock toxicoses. In Claviceps species the first step in ergot alkaloid biosynthesis is thought to be dimethylallyltryptophan (DMAT) synthase, encoded by dmaW, previously cloned from Claviceps fusiformis. Here we report the cloning and characterization of dmaW from Neotyphodium sp. isolate Lp1, an endophyte of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). The gene was then disrupted, and the mutant failed to produce any detectable ergovaline or simpler ergot and clavine alkaloids. The disruption was complemented with the C. fusiformis gene, which restored ergovaline production. Thus, the biosynthetic role of DMAT synthase was confirmed, and a mutant was generated for future studies of the ecological and agricultural importance of ergot alkaloids in endophytes of grasses.     

The ergot alkaloid gene cluster in Claviceps purpurea: extension of the cluster sequence and intra species evolution

The genomic region of Claviceps purpurea strain P1 containing the ergot alkaloid gene cluster [Tudzynski, P., H?lter, K., Correia, T., Arntz, C., Grammel, N., Keller, U., 1999. Evidence for an ergot alkaloid gene cluster in Claviceps purpurea. Mol. Gen. Genet. 261, 133-141] was explored by chromosome walking, and additional genes probably involved in the ergot alkaloid biosynthesis have been identified. The putative cluster sequence (extending over 68.5kb) contains 4 different nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes and several putative oxidases. Northern analysis showed that most of the genes were co-regulated (repressed by high phosphate), and identified probable flanking genes by lack of co-regulation. Comparison of the cluster sequences of strain P1, an ergotamine producer, with that of strain ECC93, an ergocristine producer, showed high conservation of most of the cluster genes, but significant variation in the NRPS modules, strongly suggesting that evolution of these chemical races of C. purpurea is determined by evolution of NRPS module specificity.     

The ergot alkaloid gene cluster: Functional analyses and evolutionary aspects

Ergot alkaloids and their derivatives have been traditionally used as therapeutic agents in migraine, blood pressure regulation and help in childbirth and abortion. Their production in submerse culture is a long established biotechnological process. Ergot alkaloids are produced mainly by members of the genus Claviceps, with Claviceps purpurea as best investigated species concerning the biochemistry of ergot alkaloid synthesis (EAS). Genes encoding enzymes involved in EAS have been shown to be clustered; functional analyses of EAS cluster genes have allowed to assign specific functions to several gene products. Various Claviceps species differ with respect to their host specificity and their alkaloid content; comparison of the ergot alkaloid clusters in these species (and of clavine alkaloid clusters in other genera) yields interesting insights into the evolution of cluster structure. This review focuses on recently published and also yet unpublished data on the structure and evolution of the EAS gene cluster and on the function and regulation of cluster genes. These analyses have also significant biotechnological implications: the characterization of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) involved in the synthesis of the peptide moiety of ergopeptines opened interesting perspectives for the synthesis of ergot alkaloids; on the other hand, defined mutants could be generated producing interesting intermediates or only single peptide alkaloids (instead of the alkaloid mixtures usually produced by industrial strains).     

Extracellular metabolism of sucrose in a submerged culture of Claviceps purpurea: formation of monosaccharides and clavine alkaloids.

Transformation of extracellular sucrose during cultivation of Claviceps purpurea led to the formation of mono- and oligosaccharides. Maltose was a suitable substrate for submerged fermentation of alkaloids. Fermentation in a medium with maltose was characterized by an insignificant formation of glucans, intensive sporulation, suspension growth of mycelium, and a higher formation of elymoclavine. Glucose alone yielded low levels of total alkaloids and high glucan formation; on the other hand, glucose promoted the formation of elymoclavine.     

Extracellular metabolism of sucrose in a submerged culture of Claviceps purpurea: formation of monosaccharides and clavine alkaloids

Transformation of extracellular sucrose during cultivation of Claviceps purpurea led to the formation of mono- and oligosaccharides. Maltose was a suitable substrate for submerged fermentation of alkaloids. Fermentation in a medium with maltose was characterized by an insignificant formation of glucans, intensive sporulation, suspension growth of mycelium, and a higher formation of elymoclavine. Glucose alone yielded low levels of total alkaloids and high glucan formation; on the other hand, glucose promoted the formation of elymoclavine.     

Overproduction of medicinal ergot alkaloids based on a fungal platform

Privileged ergot alkaloids (EAs) produced by the fungal genus Claviceps are used to treat a wide range of diseases. However, their use and research have been hampered by the challenging genetic engineering of Claviceps. Here we systematically refactored and rationally engineered the EA biosynthetic pathway in heterologous host Aspergillus nidulans by using a Fungal-Yeast-Shuttle-Vector protocol. The obtained strains allowed the production of diverse EAs and related intermediates, including prechanoclavine (PCC, 333.8 mg/L), chanoclavine (CC, 241.0 mg/L), agroclavine (AC, 78.7 mg/L), and festuclavine (FC, 99.2 mg/L), etc. This fungal platform also enabled the access to the methyl-oxidized EAs (MOEAs), including elymoclavine (EC), lysergic acid (LA), dihydroelysergol (DHLG), and dihydrolysergic acid (DHLA), by overexpressing a P450 enzyme CloA. Furthermore, by optimizing the P450 electron transfer (ET) pathway and using multi-copy of cloA, the titers of EC and DHLG have been improved by 17.3- and 9.4-fold, respectively. Beyond our demonstration of A. nidulans as a robust platform for EA overproduction, our study offers a proof of concept for engineering the eukaryotic P450s-contained biosynthetic pathways in a filamentous fungal host.     

Resistance of Escherichia coli to penicillins. IX. Genetics and physiology of class II ampicillin-resistant mutants that are galactose negative or sensitive to bacteriophage C21, or both

Ampicillin-resistant mutants of class II are determined by a doubling of chromosomally and episomally mediated ampicillin resistance on agar plates. Several mutants were isolated from a female as well as from an Hfr strain. The mutants differed from each other in various properties such as response to colicin E2 and sodium cholate, response to the phages T4 and C21, and fermentation of galactose. By conjugation and transduction experiments, it was shown that mutations in at least four loci gave the class II phenotype. The mutations were found to be in the galU gene, the ctr gene, and two new genes close to mtl denoted lpsA and lpsB. The carbohydrate compositions of the lipopolysaccharides of the mutants were investigated and found to be changed compared to the parent strains. GalU mutants lacked rhamnose and galactose and had 11% glucose compared to the parent strain. The lpsA mutant also lacked rhamnose and had only traces of galactose and 58% glucose, whereas the lpsB mutant contained 14% rhamnose, traces of galactose, and 81% glucose compared to the parent strain.     

Effect of clomiphene on fatty acids, sterols and membrane fluidity in clavine producing Claviceps purpurea strains

Clomiphene depressed the growth and enhanced clavine production of Claviceps purpurea strains 129,35 and 59. Mycelial content of 18:2 and 16:0 fatty acids decreased, whereas that of 18:1 and 18:0 acids increased. In the mutant strain 59 clomiphene, triadimefon and ergosterol stimulated the impaired function of chanoclavine cyclase. Their effect was counteracted by plant oil. Clomiphene decreased the content of total lipids (44%), triglycerides (32%), sterols (22%) and sterol/phospholipid molar ratio. The PC/PE ratio was 9X increased. Clomiphene and triadimefon enhanced membrane fluidity of protoplasts, ergosterol and oil reverted their effect.     

An ergot alkaloid biosynthesis gene and clustered hypothetical genes from Aspergillus fumigatus

The ergot alkaloids are a family of indole-derived mycotoxins with a variety of significant biological activities. Aspergillus fumigatus, a common airborne fungus and opportunistic human pathogen, and several fungi in the relatively distant taxon Clavicipitaceae (clavicipitaceous fungi) produce different sets of ergot alkaloids. The ergot alkaloids of these divergent fungi share a four-member ergoline ring but differ in the number, type, and position of the side chains. Several genes required for ergot alkaloid production are known in the clavicipitaceous fungi, and these genes are clustered in the genome of the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea. We investigated whether the ergot alkaloids of A. fumigatus have a common biosynthetic and genetic origin with those of the clavicipitaceous fungi. A homolog of dmaW, the gene controlling the determinant step in the ergot alkaloid pathway of clavicipitaceous fungi, was identified in the A. fumigatus genome. Knockout of dmaW eliminated all known ergot alkaloids from A. fumigatus, and complementation of the mutation restored ergot alkaloid production. Clustered with dmaW in the A. fumigatus genome are sequences corresponding to five genes previously proposed to encode steps in the ergot alkaloid pathway of C. purpurea, as well as additional sequences whose deduced protein products are consistent with their involvement in the ergot alkaloid pathway. The corresponding genes have similarities in their nucleotide sequences, but the orientations and positions within the cluster of several of these genes differ. The data indicate that the ergot alkaloid biosynthetic capabilities in A. fumigatus and the clavicipitaceous fungi had a common origin.     

Formation of clavicipitic acid in cell-free systems of Claviceps sp.

4-Dimethylallyltryptophan-[3-¹⁴C] was converted to clavicipitic acid in cell-free extracts from Claviceps sp. SD 58 and Claviceps purpurea PRL 1980. Activity was concentrated in the microsomal fraction. Oxygen was required but there was no cofactor requirement. p-(Hydroxymercuri)benzoic acid strongly inhibited the conversion. Addition of diethyldithiocarbamate increased conversion 2·5 ×. Conversion was favored at high pH. Clavicipitic acid [¹⁴C] added to cultures of Claviceps sp. SD 58 was not significantly incorporated into elymoclavine.     

Biotechnology and genetics of ergot alkaloids

Ergot alkaloids, i.e. ergoline-derived toxic metabolites, are produced by a wide range of fungi, predominantly by members of the grass-parasitizing family of the Clavicipitaceae. Naturally occurring alkaloids like the D-lysergic acid amides, produced by the "ergot fungus" Claviceps purpurea, have been used as medicinal agents for a long time. The pharmacological effects of the various ergot alkaloids and their derivatives are due to the structural similarity of the tetracyclic ring system to neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline, dopamine or serotonin. In addition to "classical" indications, e.g. migraine or blood pressure regulation, there is a wide spectrum of potential new applications of this interesting group of compounds. The biotechnology of ergot alkaloids has a long tradition, and efficient parasitic and submerse production processes have been developed; the biochemistry of the pathway and the physiology of production have been worked out in detail. The recent identification of a cluster of genes involved in ergot alkaloid biosynthesis in C. purpurea and the availability of molecular genetic techniques allow the development of strategies for rational drug design of ergoline-related drugs by enzyme engineering and by biocombinatorial approaches.     

Polygalacturonase is a pathogenicity factor in the Claviceps purpurea/rye interaction

Claviceps purpurea is a biotrophic, organ-specific pathogen of grasses and cereals, attacking exclusively young ovaries. We have previously shown that its mainly intercellular growth is accompanied by degradation of pectin, and that two endopolygalacturonase genes (cppg1/cppg2) are expressed throughout all stages of infection. We report here on a functional analysis of these genes using a gene-replacement approach. Mutants lacking both polygalacturonase genes are not affected in their vegetative properties, but they are nearly nonpathogenic on rye. Complementation of the mutants with wild-type copies of cppg1 and cppg2 fully restored pathogenicity, proving that the endopolygalacturonases encoded by cppg1 and cppg2 represent pathogenicity factors in the interaction system C. purpurea/Secale cereale, the first unequivocally identified so far in this system.     

Production of Substituted l-Tryptophans by Fermentation

Claviceps purpurea has been shown to produce extracellular l-tryptophan from indole in stirred fermentors. The substrate specificity of this conversion was investigated by using substituted indoles, anthranilic acid, and 4-chloro-anthranilic acid. Addition of 2-, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-methyl indole or 6-chloroindole to C. purpurea C1M produced the corresponding substituted l-tryptophan. In contrast, addition of l-methyl, 6-trifluoromethyl, 6-nitro-, or 4-benzyloxy-substituted indoles, or anthranilic and 4-chloroanthranilic acids did not produce detectable amounts of the corresponding tryptophan.     

An oleate hydroxylase from the fungus Claviceps purpurea: cloning, functional analysis, and expression in Arabidopsis

Claviceps purpurea, a fungal pathogen responsible for ergot diseases in many agriculturally important cereal crops, produces high levels of ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxyoctadec-cis-9-enoic acid) in its sclerotia. It has been believed for many years that the biosynthesis of this fatty acid in C. purpurea involves a hydration process with linoleic acid as the substrate. Using degenerate polymerase chain reaction, we cloned a gene from the sclerotia encoding an enzyme (CpFAH) that has high sequence similarity to the C. purpurea oleate desaturase, but only low similarity to plant oleate hydroxylases. Functional analysis of CpFAH in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) indicated it acted predominantly as a hydroxylase, introducing hydroxyl groups at the 12-position of oleic acid and palmitoleic acid. As well, it showed Delta(12) desaturase activities on 16C and 18C monounsaturated fatty acids and, to a much lesser extent, omega(3) desaturase activities on ricinoleic acid. Heterologous expression of CpFAH under the guidance of a seed-specific promoter in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) wild-type and mutant (fad2/fae1) plants resulted in the accumulation of relatively higher levels of hydroxyl fatty acids in seeds. These data indicate that the biosynthesis of ricinoleic acid in C. purpurea is catalyzed by the fungal desaturase-like hydroxylase, and CpFAH, the first Delta(12) oleate hydroxylase of nonplant origin, is a good candidate for the transgenic production of hydroxyl fatty acids in oilseed crops.     

A Complex Ergovaline Gene Cluster in Epichloë Endophytes of Grasses

Clavicipitaceous fungal endophytes of the genera Epichloë and Neotyphodium form symbioses with grasses of the subfamily Pooideae, in which they can synthesize an array of bioprotective alkaloids. Some strains produce the ergopeptine alkaloid ergovaline, which is implicated in livestock toxicoses caused by ingestion of endophyte-infected grasses. Cloning and analysis of a nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) gene from Neotyphodium lolii revealed a putative gene cluster for ergovaline biosynthesis containing a single-module NRPS gene, lpsB, and other genes orthologous to genes in the ergopeptine gene cluster of Claviceps purpurea and the clavine cluster of Aspergillus fumigatus. Despite conservation of gene sequence, gene order is substantially different between the N. lolii, C. purpurea, and A. fumigatus ergot alkaloid gene clusters. Southern analysis indicated that the N. lolii cluster was linked with previously identified ergovaline biosynthetic genes dmaW and lpsA. The ergovaline genes are closely associated with transposon relics, including retrotransposons and autonomous and nonautonomous DNA transposons. All genes in the cluster were highly expressed in planta, but expression was very low or undetectable in mycelia from axenic culture. This work provides a genetic foundation for elucidating biochemical steps in the ergovaline pathway, the ecological role of individual ergot alkaloid compounds, and the regulation of their synthesis in planta.     

Physiological control and process kinetics of clavine alkaloid production byClaviceps purpurea

Summary Kinetic parameters of production of clavine alkaloids were evaluated in twoClaviceps purpurea strains. Mutagenesis brought about enhanced resistance of the biosynthetic system towards alkaloids. Addition of glucose into the fermentation medium altered the zero order kinetics of production to activation-inhibition kinetics. The glucose treatment allowed performance of both elymoclavine-inhibitionless and clavine alkaloid-decompositionless fermentations if a combination of fermentation and separation units in a closed loop was used.Nomenlacture k ₁ rate constant of agroclavine synthesis (mg Agro · mg Elymo/l·g DW·day for stage 1, mg Agro/g DW·day for stage 2) - k ₂ parameter describing inhibition of agroclavine formation rate by elymoclavine (mg Elymo/l) - k ₃ specific rate of agroclavine decay (l/g DW·day) - k ₄ maximal specific rate of elymoclavine synthesis (stage 1, 1/g DW·day, stage 2, mg Elymo/g DW·day) - k ₄ ^– maximal specific rate of elymoclavine synthesis in stage 1 (inhibition-activation mechanism) (mg Elymo/g DW·day) - k ₅ physiological constant describing the elymoclavine decay rate (l²/g DW·day·mg Elymo) - k ₅ ^– physiological constant describing the activation of elymoclavine biosynthesis by elymoclavine (mg Elymo/l) - k ₆ physiological constant describing the repression of elymoclavine biosynthesis by elymoclavine (mg Elymo/l) - k ₇ maximal specific growth rate (1/day) - k ₈ specific rate of biomass decay (l/g DW·day) - A agroclavine concentration (mg/l) - E elymoclavine concentration (mg/l) - r _A specific rate of agroclavine biosynthesis (mg Agro/g DW·day) - r _E specific rate of elymoclavine biosynthesis (mg Elymo/g DW·day) - r _i specific rate of alkaloid biosynthesis (mg alkaloid/g DW·day) - X dry biomass concentration (g/l) - specific growth rate (1/day) Abbreviations Agro agroclavine - Elymo elymoclavine - Chano chanoclavine - DW dry weight of biomass