Exploitation of Local,Drifted and Imported Wood by the Vikings on the Faroe Islands

Summary

Two hundred wood samples have been examined from the Viking settlement at Argisbrekka on Eysturoydated to AD 770–1015. They fall into three categories:-1. local wood: Juniperus. Betula pubescens Ehrh., Corylus, Salix and heathland dwarf shrubs; 2. driftwood: Picea, Larix and Pinus section strobus; and 3. imported wood: Quercus, Pinus section sylvestris, Alnus and Fraxinus. The local tree vegetation was over-exploited and Betula became extinct in the course of the Viking Age. Driftwood, mainly of Siberian origin, seems to be the most important tree resource and was used for houses and utensils. Imported wood probably mostly comprised ships and finished products made in Scandinavia. The detection of tree Betula growth between 2,460 BC and AD 770 is a new contribution to the vegetational history of the Faroe Islands.     

Vegetazione e ambiente delle Marche e relativi problemi di salvaguardia

Abstract

Vegetation and environment in the Marche and related problems of protection. – The « Marche » region is situated in central Italy and corresponds with the natural region east of the Appennine ridge and spreading as far as the coast which is washed by the Adriatic Sea.

As to the climate, we may distinguish a coastal strip with Mesomediterranean climate with dry season, corresponding to the distribution area of Quercus ilex; a hilly strip with Submediterranean climate, corresponding to the distribution area of Quercus pubescens; a mountain strip with temperate axeric climate with sub-dry period, corresponding to the distribution area of Fagus silvatica and finally a high mountain strip with cold axeric climate, corresponding to altitude pastures. The Marche vegetation is shown in the vegetation map of Fabriano sheet (scale 1:50,000) plotted according Ozenda's vegetational series.

The following vegetation series have been plotted: submediterranean series of Quercus ilex; series of thermophilic oak wood with priority of Quercus pubescens or Quercus cerris; series of Ostrya carpinifolia; series of Quercus petraea and series of Fagus silvatica.

As far as the problems to safegard environment are concerned, a plan is given providing for the institution of 4 complete nature reserves, 34 nature reserves, and 9 regional nature parks among which those of Monte Conero, of Monti Sibillini and Monti della Laga.     

METAL UPTAKE AND ALLOCATION IN TREES GROWN ON CONTAMINATED LAND: IMPLICATIONS FOR BIOMASS PRODUCTION

Phytostabilization aims to reduce environmental and health risks arising from contaminated soil. To be economically attractive, plants used for phytostabilization should produce valuable biomass. This study investigated the biomass production and metal allocation to foliage and wood of willow (Salix viminalis L.), poplar (Populus monviso), birch (Betula pendula), and oak (Quercus robur) on five different soils contaminated with trace elements (TE), with varying high concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb as well as an uncontaminated control soil. In the treatment soils, the biomass was reduced in all species except oak. There was a significant negative correlation between biomass and foliar Cd and Zn concentrations, reaching up to 15 mg Cd kg^?1 and 2000 mg Zn kg ^?1 in willow leaves. Lead was the only TE with higher wood than foliage concentrations. The highest Pb accumulation occurred in birch with up to 135 mg kg ^?1 in wood and 78 mg kg ^?1 in foliage. Birch could be suitable for phytostabilization of soils with high Cd and Zn but low Pb concentrations, while poplars and willows could be used to stabilise soils with high Cu and Pb and low Zn and Cd concentrations.     

Evoluzione Della Cerchia Legnosa in Quercus Aegilops L. a Tricase

Abstract

The author has examined the cambial activity and the formation of the annual ring in Quercus aegilops from February 1954 to February 1955. Material was collected at Tricase (Lecce) the only Italian locality where this oriental species grows although it is doubtful whether it is spontaneous.

Cambial activity starts in the middle of April both in the main stem and in the branches following flowering and bud development. It goes on for about five months until the second half of August forming a complete growth ring. This annual ring shows the normal sequence of early wood with wide vessels formed during the second half of April and the whole of May, intermediate wood with medium and small size vessels, parenchima, and fibres formed in June-July, and late wood with few small size vessels, parenchima, and fibres formed from the end of July to middle August.

There is no reawakening of cambial activity in autumn even if the climatic conditions are favourable. Tylosis are very easily formed in the wood vessels and by this process the plant can withstand the drought of the Apulian summer.     

Wood remains from Tel Nami,a middle bronze IIa and late bronze IIb port,local exploitation of trees and levantine cedar trade

Thirteen Middle Bronze Age IIa and four Late Bronze Age IIb (ca. 1950-1750 B.C. and thirteenth century, B.C., respectively)pieces of charcoal or water logged wood were found in the recent excavations of Tel Nami, a small port on the coast near Mount Carmel, Israel. These includedCedrus libani (cedar of Lebanon) (three samples), and local tree species that still grow today in the vicinity of the site—Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine) (one sample),Olea europaea (olive tree) (five samples),Quercus calliprinos (kermes oak) (three samples),Quercus ithaburensis (Mt. Tabor oak) (four samples), andQuercus sp. (one sample). The discovery of Cedrus libani in a Middle Bronze Age IIa port is one of the earliest published examples of cedar wood from Israel. Together with other artifactual evidence for maritime trade from Tel Nami, this find suggests that a maritime trade in cedar wood existed along the Levantine coast.     

La vegetazione delle isole Palmaria e Tino (Golfo della Spezia)

Abstract

The vegetation of the Palmaria and Tino Islands (Gulf of La Spezia). — The vegetation of the Palmaria and Tino islands in the Gulf of La Spezia shows various aspects although they are completely calcareous and do not exceed two hundred meters in height. Along the coast, we have noticed some small beaches with a few psammophytes, and some cliffs vertically overlooking the sea with the endemic Centaurea cineraria var. veneris and with a few shrubs (among which I would like to mention Pinus halepensis) that become bigger and bigger and grow in number with the altitude. On the southern side of Palmaria the Mediterranean « maquis » with Calicotome spinosa, Cistus monspeliensis, Myrtus communis and Pistacia lentiscus is to be noticed. This bush is either compact or rarefied so that it makes a sort of « garigue » on limestone with Euphorbia dendroides, Helichrysum stoechas, Ruta chalepensis, Thymus vulgaris. Owing to the fact that some land strips of Palmaria escaped from fire a thermophilous vegetation is to be found, with a few trees of Pinus halepensis and with a thick undergrowth of Euphorbia dendroides, Cistus incanus, Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis, Smilax aspera. The vegetation of the northern side of Palmaria and Tino is less thermophilous, together with a thick wood of Quercus ilex with some plants of Quercus pubescens and with undergrowth of Viburnum tinus, Smilax aspera, Smilax mauritanica, Coronilla emerus; this wood, especially in the higher part of Palmaria, shows some glades where Erica arborea, Cistus salvifolius, Dorycnium hirsutum grow, with some entities which are distributed quite far from the sea, such as Peucedanum cervaria. Still on the northern side of Palmaria there are some traces of chestnut woods with Castanea sativa, Quercus pubescens, Ostrya carpinifolia, Corylus avellana, Cytisus laburnum and with some plants that usually grow in the cooler areas among the chestnut woods and often in the beech woods like Daphne laureola, Digitalis lutea, Helleborus foetidus and Sesleria autumnalis. A comparison between the biological spectrum of the two islands with the one of Capo Caccia in north western Sardinia and of Marettimo island in western Sicily, clearly shows that in going down southwards, a strong increase of the therophytes (respectively 29,57%, 41,73%, 49,59%), of the chamaephytes and of the nanophanerophytes (13,53%, 16,94%, 18,47%) is to be noticed, while the hemicryptophytes decrease (35,33%, 22,72%, 21,28%). Besides, the vegetation of Capo Caccia although being situated half way between the two Ligurian islands and Marettimo, is much more similar to the latter one; evidently Palmaria and Tino are conditioned by their closeness to the La Spezia coasts while having a climate quite different from them.     

New species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Moristroma</Emphasis> (Ascomycetes) and phylogenetic position of the genus

The loculoascomycete Moristroma quercinum sp. nov. and Moristroma japonicum sp. nov. are described from Northern Europe (Denmark, Lithuania, Sweden) and Japan, respectively. M. quercinum is reported from wood of Quercus robur and Q. petraea, and M. japonicum is reported from wood of Quercus mongolica var. grossoserrata. Ascostromata of both species were found on hard heartwood of attached or shed branches. The two new species differ from the type species of the genus, M. polysporum, by the presence of pycnidia, and by the size of ascostromata, asci and ascospores. Drawings illustrate ascostromata, pycnidia, asci, hamathecium and ascospores of the two new species. A phylogenetic analysis suggests that Moristroma belongs to the Chaetothyriomycetes, rather than to the Dothideomycetes as previously suggested.     

Decomposition of standing dead trees in the southern Appalachian Mountains

Summary Decomposition of standing dead trees that were killed by fire was examined for 10 species in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The decrease in wood density as fire age increased was used to estimate decomposition rates. Quercus prinus had the fastest decay rate (11% yr^-1) while Pinus virginiana had the slowest decay rate (3.6% yr^-1) for standing dead wood. Decay rates were intermediate between those reported in western USA and tropics for wood.     

L'evoluzione della cerchia legnosa in Quercus Pubescens W. Ein Quercus Ilex L. nel clima di Firenze

Summary

The evolution of the wood ring in Quercus pubescens W. and in Quercus Ilex L. in Florence (from June 1946 to June 1947).

The present study deals with the anatomical characters of the wood ring of Q. pubescens and of Q. Ilex. In both the specimens the wood of the stem and of the young branch has been investigated.

In both plants studied the cambial tissue of the stem starts dividing at the end of April, reaching its maximum activity from May to June.

On the contrary the cambium of the branch differentiates in Q. pubescens a month earlier (18 March-18 April) than in Q. Ilex (18 April-18 May). While in the branch of Q. Ilex a false ring can be seen corresponding to the autumn months, nothing of the kind is found in the branch of Q. pubescens; though it presents a false ring in the stem.

It is difficult to date clearly the period when the cambium stops its activity, but probably it happens at the end of August in the samples of the stem.

The leaf buds of Q. pubescens and of Q. Ilex open during April-May and the young branch is completely developed at the end of June. In both oaks some buds open in autumn, but the small branches are prevented to develop because of the cold.

No comparison can be made between the opening of the buds and the beginning of the cambial activity in the stem and in the branch.

Considering the evolution of these woods and their relationship to climatic factors, we can see that the cambial activity starts during a period of remarkable rainfall and of regular increase of temperature, and stops almost completely at the end of July, when temperature and dryness reach their highest values.

The autumn rainfall would favour again a cambial activity, but the values of the temperature, regularly decreasing, do not allow it.     

Tree age‐dependent changes among epiphytic bryophyte communities in Mediterranean environments. A case study from Sicily (Italy)

Abstract

The epiphytic bryophytes inhabiting trees of different size/age in a Quercus ilex wood from Madonie Mountains (northern Sicily, Italy) were studied with the purpose of describing the changes that take place in the bryophyte stratum during the tree lifespan. Results indicate an increase of bryophyte cover combined with a progressive decrease of epiphytic lichens and the existence of an active process of species and community substitution. The way these processes take place corresponds to a succession sequence, which is characterised by a high number of pioneer species on the youngest trees and a sharp decline of species number on middle‐aged and old trees due to the great spread of Leptodon smithii and a few other pleurocarpous mosses. The comparison of these traits to those from central Spain evidences differences in patterns of tree colonisation by epiphyte bryophytes between the two areas and suggests that climatic conditions play a chief role in the epiphytic bryophyte establishment and succession in Mediterranean areas.     

Colonization of Submerged Twigs and Branches of Different Wood Genera by Aquatic Macroinvertebrates

Previous studies which investigated macroinvertebrate colonization of submerged wooden substrates in streams and lakes did not consider the wood species. In this study, the genus of randomly collected twigs and branches from two streams was determined microscopically using morphological and structural characteristics of the wood genera. The macroinvertebrate colonization of the wooden substrates was analysed with respect to the different kinds of the twigs and branches. Additionally, an exposition experiment was conducted with the most commonly found wood genera, alder (Alnus) and oak (Quercus), in two different states of decay (freshwood and conditioned wood). The colonization experiment stressed the results of the natural wood samplings that the wood genus plays only a minor role in the colonization by macroinvertebrates.     

Geometric morphometric analyses of leaf variation in four oak species of the subgenus Quercus (Fagaceae)

Abstract

This paper defines a protocol for the study of leaf morphology and morphometric relationships among Quercus frainetto, Quercus robur, Quercus petraea and Quercus pubescens. Leaf shapes were investigated in an attempt to characterize and discriminate among these four species. Landmark and outline data were compared in order to ascertain their relative efficacy for describing variation in leaf morphology. MANOVA was performed to assess intra‐specific differentiation and to compare the distribution of variance in individuals, populations and species. A strong correlation was found between landmark and outline datasets of the four species: both methods proved capable of discriminating among the four species. Finally, a Two‐Block Partial Least‐Squares analysis was performed for each species in order to assess the correlation between intra‐specific shape variation and environmental factors.     

Alcuni Aspetti Della Variabilità Del Legno Secondario Di Un Esemplare Di Prunus Persica Stokes

Abstract

Some aspects of the variability in wood structure of a specimen of PRUNUS PERSICA Stokes. — The secondary xylem of a young stem of Prunus persica Stokes has been investigated under three main headings: 1) vessel and fibre length; 2) intrusive fibre growth; 3) relative amount of libriform fibres, fibretracheids and tracheids.

Vessel members and fibres have been reckoned from single rings and from the whole wood body.

The relation between the above mentioned dimensions and the position within the wood body and the width of the growth layers has been calculated.

No remarkable variation has been found along the axis of the stem; on the contrary there is a decrease in both fibres and vessels length along the radius of the stem from inside outwards. Such behaviour having never been recorded before, the possible causes are suggested.

A positive correlation has been found between the width of the growth layers and 1) vessel members and fibres length, 2) fibre intrusive growth, 3) percentage of libriform fibres. In addition a relative correlation between percentage of libriform fibres and age of the cambium has been put in evidence.     

Frammenti di Quereeto a Roverella e di Macchia Mediterranea a Vivara (Isole Flegree)

Abstract

Fragments of oak-crop with QUERCUS PUBESCENS willd. and of mediterranean maquis in the isle of vivara (Flegrean isles). — In these note the types of arboreous and shrubby vegetation pointed out in the islet of Vivara are passed in rapid review. Particular references to the types of vegetation arranged in the Quercion ilicis are given.

A short account is reserved to the presence of Quercus pubescens Willd. and to the importance of these species concerning the construction of the fragments of oak-crop and of mediterranean high maquis that are present to the edges of tableland and on the sides of the smallest Flegrean isles.

It is a question of unusual aspects of vegetation for a microinsular environment. Therefore they are worthy of study before they are destroyed or still more altered.     

L'origine et l'évolution du xylème chez les Trachéophytes

Abstract

Xylem origin and evolution in the Tracheophyta. - The research on the xylem origin and evolution leads to investigate three features - guides:

—Passage from homoxyly to heteroxyly.

—Reduction of the importance of primary centripetal xylem in geological time.

—Progressive decrease of initial cambial cells lenght in the main groups of plants.

In this connection, one should recall the phloem-xylem evolution laws instituted by Chauveaud (1931).

From this well defined estimations on fossil vascular plants with secondary xylem, a clear evaluation of phylogenic significance of wood pattern by means of correlation with a wide range of various anatomical features is reached.

Salient evolutionnary trends of secondary xylem are illustrated with significative pattern examples related more particulary to fossil homoxylous structures of Sphenophyta, Gymnosperms and homoxylous or heteroxylous Dicotyledons.

Furthermore, unusual and rare structure of Pentoxylales and Rhexoxylales, particularly with regard to the cambium functionning must be recalled.     

Note floristiche e fenologiche nel territorio di Arneo (Fra Taranto e Gallipoli)

Summary

The author describes the vegetation and phenology of a Quercus Ilex wood in the Comprensorio dell'Arneo, betwen Taranto and Gallipoli along the eastern shore of the Ionian Sea (Golfo di Taranto). The wood consists partly of a degraded bushy vegetation.

The wood was visited eleven times during the year and each time species found flowering were noted (Table at pp 296–301): the greatest number of them, many being therothytes, was found on April 21rst (fig. 2) with about a month's delay in comparison with Palestine (Gindel). In May there is a considerable i decrease in number of species flowering. In summer and winter, because of drought and low temperature very few species, mostly geophytes, were found flowering, and only slightly but markedly more in Autum.     

Wood anatomy of some trees with diffuse- and ring-porous wood: Some functional and ecological interpretations

Abstract

The xylem conduit dimensions (i.e. their width and length) have been measured in 1-year-old internodes, nodes and node-to-petiole (N-P) junctions of three species with diffuse-porous wood, namely Ceratonia siliqua L., Laurus nobilis L. and Olea europaea L. as well as of three species with ring-porous wood, namely Quercus ilex L., Q. suber L. and Q. pubescens Willd‥ The xylem conduit diameter and length distributions have been related to the drought resistance strategies adopted by the six species. C. siliqua and Q. ilex (drought avoiding water spenders) showed the widest xylem conduits (each species within its characteristic pattern of wood anatomy). This is consistent with their high demand of efficient water transport to leaves. L. nobilis (drought avoiding water saver) showed relatively narrow xylem conduits, efficient enough, however, to assure water supply to leaves at the reduced transpiration rate exhibited by the species. O. europaea, Q. suber and Q. pubescens (drought tolerants) showed the narrowest xylem conduits but also the longest ones. The xylem system of C. siliqua and Q. ilex represented a good compromise between efficiency and safety of the water transport, the former as due to wide xylem conduits, the latter to the reduced xylem conduit length as well as to the strong «hydraulic constrictions» at their nodes and N-P junctions. The ecological interpretation of such hydraulic architecture is discussed.     

Proposte Per La Tutela Di Alcune Aree,Di Particolare Interesse Geobotanico,Nel Parco Nazionale Del Circeo

Abstract

Proposals for the protection of some areas, of particular geobotanical interest, in the Circeo National Park. — The Circeo National Park is located south of Rome in the province of Latina. Its area is about 7.445 hectares. It is characterised by three neatly differentiated environments: the calcareous massive of Mt. Circeo, the State Forest of Sabaudia and the littoral dune. The Park's vegetation is threatened by numerous dangers. These are caused by the progressive building expansion in act on Mt. Circeo as well as on the littoral dune; by the introduction of various alien species, particularly in parks and gardens, which contaminate the local flora; by the afflux of picnickers who converge mainly on the dune; by pasture allowed in the State Forest; by the building of a road which cuts in half the southern slope of Mt. Circeo; by the exploitation of a stone-mine on Mt. Circeo. In order to preserve, at least partially, the vegetation from such threats, the Author proposes that five areas should be fenced and declared « Integral protected area ». Three areas are included in the State Forest, one on Mt. Circeo and the other on the dune. The total area is about 583 hectares. These areas comprise the most interesting aspects of the natural vegetation of the Park and groups of introduced arboreal plants (Pinus and Eucalyptus) of particular technical interest. The establishment of these reserves will have a scientific as well as an experimental aim. In such reserves all human activities should be prohibited with the exception of some cultural interventions on the introduced species. The areas of the State Forest include a nucleus of forest of Quercus cerris; a mesohygrophilous cenosis in which Quercus pedunculata predominate, with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus oxycarpa; a scrubby heath with Erica arborea, Erica scoparia and Myrtus communis, with specimen of Quercus pseudo-suber; a small prairie abundant with annual species; a plot of Eucaliptus grandis. The area of Mt. Circeo include large patches of maquis and wood-maquis (macchia and macchia-foresta), alophilous cenosis, rocky plant communities, and other facies of Mediterranean vegetation with specimen of Chamaerops humilis. The area of the dune is variegated with patches of maquis on sandy soil, swamp cenosis, fragments of mesohygrophilous vegetation, and small nuclei of introduced species. The Author suggests some executive norms in order to provide full protection of the proposed areas as well as the environment of the Park. He favours a solution by which the State should acquire both areas of the dune and of the Mt. Circeo, and also suggests particular bonds for the defense of the natural vegetation of the State Forest. In the forest, in fact, no plants of Quercus pedunculata, Quercus suber, Quercus ilex, Quercus pseudo-suber, Cytisus laburnum, Acer campestre and Tilia europaea should be utilised. Finally the Author advises against the introduction in the forest of species alien to the local flora and the destruction, except in particular cases, of the underwood.     

Evoluzione Annuale della Cerchia Legnosa in Individui Maschili E Femminili di Ginkyo Biloba L.

Abstract

Wood ring evolution in male and female plants of GINKYO BILOBA L. — A morphological examen of the wood rings in Ginkyo biloba L. has been performed on stem sections from specimens of the Botanical Institute of Florence, on wood samples from the collection of Adriano Fiori and on wood cores extracted from the stem of male and female plants growing in the Botanical Garden of Florence.

At the same time the development of the growth ring has been followed on wood samples tacken off the stems of two adult Ginkyo plants growing in the Botanical Garden of Florence.

All the material which has been studied shows the same characters, that is the frequency of uncomplete crescent-shaped wood rings, and consequently a large degree of eccentricity of the stems, depending not only upon the uncomplete wood rings, but also on the changing width of each ring.

Microscopical analysis has pointed out the presence of false rings, limited by discontinuous late wood, particularly in the female plant. This character has been observed only in a fossil wood of Ginkyo bonesii.

It has not been possible to assers how many rings or crescents are formed during one year. From dating records made on wood cores it seems that more than one ring could differentiate during one year, but the cambium shows a very irregular activity in Ginkyo. The factors which control the formation of false and uncomplete wood rings (wood crescents) are also unknown; their formation possibly depending upon environment conditions.

External factors such as water deficiency probably control cambial activity through auxin production. Larson (1964) has shown that draught causes a decrease in tracheids diameter, and the formation of false growth rings; thus the same causes could have been in action in our plants.

Noteworthy are also the data by Gungkel and Thimann (in Larson 1964) showing that auxin content increases downwards in the shoots of Ginkyo and that the apical bud has a very low auxin production, so that it seems possible that in Ginkyo the leaves supply something which the cortical tissue converts into auxin.

Lastly, the almost continuous growth activity of the cambium in Ginkyo must be pointed out, this causes a great difficulty in checking the beginning and the end of this process along the year. It is any way possible to establish the time of the highest cambial activity, which lies in June-July both in the female and in the male plants.