Evidence from charcoal analysis for environmental change during the interval late Bronze Age to Roman,at the archaeological site of Castro de Penices,N.W. Portugal

Vegetation and environmental change from late Bronze Age to the Roman period in north-west Portugal is reconstructed on the basis of charcoal analyses. The site was occupied by people of the Castrejo culture, i.e. an Iron Age culture that developed in the north-west Iberian peninsula. The pattern of exploitation of natural wood resources by local populations during this period appears to be similar during the three phases of occupation. The frequencies of light-demanding plant species, mostly Leguminosae, testify to considerable destruction and degeneration of the climax woodlands. The preference of particular wood for specific uses, such as roofing, is discussed and the Holocene history of selected trees within the wider region is considered.     

Analysis of the fuel wood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper mining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol,Austria)

Charcoal analysis was carried out as part of an interdisciplinary project focusing on the copper mining history of the former mining area of Schwaz and Brixlegg, a region pivotal as a copper source in prehistoric Europe. The goal was to use remains of carbonised wood to investigate environmental implications of prehistoric mining, as well as to gain new insight about the ancient mining technique of fire-setting. Charcoal samples from seven copper mining sites (Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) were analysed. The results reveal a strong preference for coniferous wood as fuel in fire-setting, but not in ore smelting/roasting processes. Species composition at the ore-processing sites indicates moderate forest degradation processes caused by human intervention.     

Interpretation of charcoal and pollen data relating to a late Iron Age ritual site in eastern Ireland: a holistic approach

The study of charcoal produced by five burning episodes that occurred in a rapid succession within a ritual pit dating to the late Iron Age at Raffin Fort, Co. Meath, Ireland, reveals considerable variation in the charcoal assemblages resulting from each burning episode. Wood selection processes are considered against the background of information on woodland composition and land-use history provided by a detailed pollen diagram from nearby Emlagh Bog, the chronology of which is based on both AMS ¹⁴C dates and tephra analysis. A human skull fragment lay on top of the charcoal layers but the radiocarbon evidence indicates that the skull predated the burnings by at least a century. This and other evidence indicate a ritual pit with the skull as a human relic. It is suggested that, in this instance, wood selection was neither random nor determined solely by availability or combustibility, but instead may have been informed by socio-religious belief systems pertaining to trees and wood. Early Irish documentary sources, which reveal a complex ethnography of wood and trees in later prehistoric and early historic Ireland, are reviewed. The results shed fresh light on aspects of late Iron Age archaeology in a part of Europe that was outside the direct influence of the Roman world. New information is provided on a distinctive feature in late Holocene Irish pollen records namely the Late Iron Age Lull (ca. a.d. 1–500). During this time, widespread regeneration of woody vegetation took place. In the subsequent early Medieval period renewed farming activity resulted in substantial decline in woodland, a pattern also seen at many other locations in Ireland.     

Human impact on mid- and late Holocene vegetation in south Cumbria, UK

The use of 9 pollen sampling sites and 56 14C dates has identified hitherto unsuspected or poorly-defined sequences of mid- to late Holocene (late Neolithic to post-Medieval) anthropogenic vegetation changes in south Cumbria, U.K. A series of small-scale, but significant woodland clearance episodes are recorded throughout the Bronze Age, followed by a marked recession in activity during the early Iron Age. The late Iron Age-Roman periods witnessed the first major clearance of woodland in the region which was succeeded by woodland regeneration in the post-Roman/early Medieval period. Woodland clearance intensified in the later Medieval period culminating in large areas of permanently open landscape. The results show that high-resolution, independently date pollen analysis is necessary to reveal regional evidence of small, temporary Bronze Age clearances. A well-documented prehistoric wooden trackway from Foulshaw Moss is shown to be significantly older than previously thought, dating to the mid-Bronze Age, ca. 1550–1250 cal B.C. Pre-Roman cereal cultivation in the area is also confirmed.The Department of Earth Sciences     

Fire and stone clearance in Iron Age agriculture: new insights inferred from the analysis of terrestrial macroscopic charcoal in clearance cairns in Hamneda,southern Sweden

Areas with ancient clearance cairns have been studied in Hamneda, Småland Uplands, southern Sweden, by archaeological and palaeoecological methods. Based on numerous radiocarbon dates and stratigraphical analyses, the local introduction of stone clearance is dated to the first century A.D. The clearance cairns reflect a system of semi-mobile cultivation that lasted until c. A.D. 900. Pollen and macrofossil analyses provide information on cereal growing and pastures in these clearance cairn areas, while charcoal analyses reveal details on the agrarian expansion dynamics and the use of fire in vegetation clearance. In the expansion phase, Quercus (oak) woodlands were cleared and transformed to open pastures and arable land, partly by the use of fire. A secondary succession of Betula (birch) and Corylus (hazel) was dealt with by fire clearances to keep pastures open and to prepare new arable plots. In the long run, Betula in particular was favoured by the land-use system. The mobility of the cultivation system is discussed together with the causes behind the introduction of stone clearance. A possible causal relationship with the introduction of hay mowing is also discussed.     

Hints of economic change during the late Roman Empire period in central Italy: a study of charred plant remains from “La Fontanaccia”, near Rome

The archaeobotanical study of the charred macro-remains recovered from the burnt settlement of La Fontanaccia, Allumiere, 50 km northwest of Rome, a small hut from the time of the end of the late Roman Empire, provided results on the use of food of its inhabitants, their living conditions, and the natural environment. The fire which destroyed the small settlement was archaeologically dated to the middle of the 5th century a.d., few years before the end of the Roman Empire. This was a period in which the state structure, undermined by the barbarian invasions which provoked famine and destruction, was in deep economic and political crisis, and the population in Rome and in the countryside lived in precarious conditions. No archaeo-botanical data have been available until now for this period in the region of Rome. The presence of grass peas, acorns, two-rowed barley caryopses, and small horse bean seeds demonstrate the general state of regression in the late Roman Empire, when misery and famine were widespread. The finds of charcoal from chestnut, deciduous oak, maple and elm suggest the presence of thermophilous deciduous woods and environmental conditions similar to today’s. It deserves mention that this is the first site in which macro-remains (charcoal) of Castanea have been found in central Italy.     

Charcoal remains from an Iron Age copper smelting slag heap at Feinan,Wadi Arabah (Jordan)

Charcoal remains were analysed from copper ore smelting at Khirbet en-Nahas, an Iron Age site in the region of Feinan between Wadi Arabah and the highland of Edom. For the first time, a section was dug into a stratified slag heap and separate charcoal samples were taken from each layer. Radiocarbon dates from the charcoal range from the 12th to the 9th century B.C. The main aim of this work was to find out whether the fuel species spectra change or remain constant over the period of metallurgical activity covered by this slag heap. Twelve samples totalling 2257 pieces amounting to 340.58 g of charcoal were analysed. The species composition is more or less the same in all samples. 14 species were identified. Approximately 50% of the material consisted of Tamarix species, 40% was Retama raetam, Phoenix dactylifera and Haloxylon persicum. Thus, the rapidly regenerating shrub vegetation within walking distance of the smelting place was used as fuel and remained unchanged during at least two to three centuries. Trees from the highland of Edom such as Juniperus phoenicea or Quercus calliprinos were not found here, although they were identified from Early Bronze Age sites a few kilometres up the wadis.     

Middle/Late Bronze Age plant communities and their exploitation in the Cávado Basin (NW Portugal) as shown by charcoal analysis: the significance and co-occurrence of Quercus (deciduous) – Fabaceae

Plant communities and their possible exploitation during Late Prehistory are studied based on charcoal data from four archaeological sites. Settlement location in the area appears to have been chosen on the basis of easy access to rivers and good arable land. Quercus (deciduous) and Fabaceae appear to have been the main source of wood; this is in agreement with previous data from north-western Portugal. The abundance of Fabaceae, which thrive in open well-lit areas, is seen as a direct consequence of woodland clearance. The co-occurrence of Quercus (deciduous) and Fabaceae appears as a distinctive feature in north-western Portugal during Late Prehistory and Protohistory. Fabaceae have remained a familiar component of the vegetation cover ever since. Pinus pinaster is present as isolated individuals, in contrast to its present-day abundance.     

Beyond nature: The management of a productive cultural landscape in Las Médulas area (El Bierzo,León,Spain) during pre-Roman and Roman times

Abstract

This article focuses on the analysis of plant remains (seeds/fruits, charcoal, pollen, spores, and non-pollen palynomorphs) from two archaeological sites (pre-Roman and Roman) located in Las Médulas, a cultural landscape, in the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The article explores the way the communities living in the area managed their environment and the impact of productive activities on the landscape. This research has shown the multiplicity of needs this landscape satisfied and the various ways these communities managed the surrounding environment through different productive activities (agriculture, animal husbandry, and mining amongst others).     

Life conditions of a roman imperial age population: Occupational stress markers and working activities inLucus Feroniae (Rome, 1st–2nd cent. AD)

In ancient populations studies, investigation on activity-induced pathology performed by means of an integrated and epidemiological approach can provide useful evidence about physical activities, age of occupancy, sexual differentiation, social stratification and working tasks division of past human groups. The analysis of occupational stress of the skeletal sample coming from the poor necropolis of Lucus Feroniae, a rural town of the Roman Imperial Age, was carried out on: degenerative disease of joints and vertebral bodies, traumas, hypertrophic changes at sites of muscles and ligament insertion, presence of anatomical variants caused by postural habits or body movements. The results as a whole seem to indicate that the population, likely representative of a low social group (potentially slaves), was precociously and actively employed in heavy manual work activities. These may have included farming tasks demanding lifting, heavy loads transportation and long-distance walking on rough grounds.     

Differentiation in Lilium bulbscales grown in vitro. Effects of activated charcoal, physiological age of bulbs and sucrose concentration on differentiation and scale leaf formation in vitro

Organ differentiation and growth of tissue cultured bulbscales of Lilium auratum Lindl. was investigated. Benzyladenine stimulated bulb and bulbscale differentiation but inhibited root formation. Addition of activated charcoal to the medium negated the effect of BA on differentiation, while the growth of bulbs was markedly stimulated. Organ formation was also influenced by the physiological age of bulbs. From bulbscales of a 3-week-old bulb, a large number of bulbs and roots was formed but callus was not produced. A high sucrose concentration (90 g/1) reduced the subsequent sprouting after planting in soil. Scale leaf formation was also regulated. Sucrose (30 g/1) stimulated scale leaf formation but 90 g/1 were inhibitory.     

Assessment of the status of wild populations of land snail (escargot) Helix pomatia L. in Moldova: the effect of exploitation

Helix pomatia L., the Roman snail, is a species faced with growing commercial interest in Moldova. Its life history characteristics (slow maturation and recruitment, high mortality among juveniles and low fecundity) along with its strong spatial aggregation, makes it especially vulnerable to exploitation. In this study, differences in density, shell size and age distribution were assessed in 7 unexploited and 10 exploited sites in the northern and central parts of Moldova. A significant impact of exploitation on snail population densities, shell size of adult snails and age distribution was revealed. Exploited sites had much lower densities than unexploited ones and in two places no live snails were found. This may suggest that exploitation is currently carried out at an unsustainable level, but additional information on the demography of populations and intensity of exploitation is required in order to make inferences regarding sustainability and long-term population management. There was a higher proportion of adult snails in exploited sites than in non-exploited, because of the collection strategies: not only adults, but also all other age groups are gathered. Bigger adult shell size in exploited sites may be related to lower population density, but further study is required to confirm this. Establishing of well-organized population monitoring systems and development of snail breeding enterprises are proposed in order to conserve the species in Moldova.     

On the origin and domestication of Olea europaea L. (olive) in Andalucía, Spain, based on the biogeographical distribution of its finds

The remains of Olea europaea in archaeological contexts in the southern Iberian Peninsula have been found in the Epipalaeolithic levels of Cueva de Nerja (10860±160 b.p.). The abundant appearance of charcoal and some seed remains from the Copper Age (3rd millennium b.c.) in the coastal zones of the southeast indicate that this species formed part of the vegetation of the Thermo-mediterranean zone and that its fruits were collected during these periods. However, Olea did not appear in the Meso-mediterranean zone until the Roman period, when olive cultivation was introduced there. The presence of charcoal and olive stones from the 1st century a.d. onwards is abundant, together with remains of structures for oil pressing.     

Palaeoecological and palaeoethnological analysis of botanical macrofossils found at the Neolithic site of Rivaltella ca'Romensini, northern Italy

The botanical macrofossils (charcoals, seeds and fruits) found during the archaeological excavation of the middle Neolithic site of Rivaltella Ca'Romensini near Reggio Emilia, northern Italy, have been analyzed. Among the charcoal fragments 11 different taxa have been identified, with a clear predominance of oaks. The relative frequencies of the different taxa probably do not reflect the real frequencies in the forest, but suggest that firewood had been gathered selectively. Among the seeds and fruits, four different Gramineae, a small wild apple and some hazelnut shells have been identified. These results indicate that the food economy of the Neolithic Rivaltella inhabitants was partially based on agriculture and on fruit gathering.     

Vegetation changes and human action from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–4000 B.P.) in Alicante,Spain, based on charcoal analysis

Charcoal analysis reveals various palaeo-ecological phases from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Agriculture starts about 7000 B.P. in favourable ecological conditions. Most of the charcoal spectra from sites on the coast represent thermomediterranean holm-oak forest; those from the inland mountains represent mesome-diterranean holm-oak forest. The Neolithic I Impressed Ware people were the first to clear the forest to plant their crops. This clearance of primary woodland resulted in the development of secondary vegetation of pine woods or scrub. The scrub reached its maximum during the Bell Beaker phase and Bronze Age in the Cova de les Cendres. In the Neolithic II open air sites, the percentages of Quercus ilex/coccifera remain high. This may be the result of a different exploitation of the land, or suitable conditions for the growth and survival of the vegetation.     

Anthracological analysis from Kovacevo, southwest Bulgaria: woodland vegetation and its use during the earliest stages of the European Neolithic

Wood charcoal analysis from Kovacevo in southwest Bulgaria, one of the earliest Neolithic sites in southeastern Europe, provided information about the first stages of anthropogenic impact on vegetation during the Early Neolithic (6159–5630 cal b.c.). Deciduous oak was the most abundant and frequently used taxon in the wood charcoal assemblages. Cornus charcoal was also abundant, probably connected with the use of its twigs as building material in wattle and daub structures. The dominant deciduous oak forest was opened during the Kovacevo I period, as shown by evidence from the Kovacevo Ia and Kovacevo Ib occupation phases. Other types of vegetation, like Black pine (Pinus nigra) woodland, riverine forests and some sub-Mediterranean elements, were used only sporadically, indicating high and sustained availability of wood resources in the oak forests. Anthropogenic impacts were gradual, a pattern that matches contemporary studies elsewhere in the region.