High genetic diversity detected in the endemic Primula apennina Widmer (Primulaceae) using ISSR fingerprinting

Primula apennina Widmer is endemic to the North Apennines (Italy). ISSR were used to detect the genetic diversity within and among six populations representative of the species distribution range. High levels of genetic diversity were revealed both at population percentage of polymorphic band (PPB = 75.92%, H _S = 0.204, H _pop = 0.319) and at species level (PPB = 96.95%, H _T = 0.242, H _sp = 0.381). Nei gene diversity statistics (15.7%), Shannon diversity index (16.3%) and AMOVA (14%) detected a moderate level of interpopulation diversity. Principal coordinate and Bayesian analyses clustered the populations in three major groups along a geographic gradient. The correlation between genetic and geographic distances was positive (Mantel test, r = 0.232). All together, these analyses revealed a weak but significant spatial genetic structure in P. apennina, with gene flow acting as a homogenizing force that prevents a stronger differentiation of populations. Conservation measures are suggested based on the observed pattern of genetic variability.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered Chinese endemic herb Saruma henryi Oliv. (Aristolochiaceae) and its implications for conservation

Saruma henryi Oliv., the only representative of the monotypic genus Saruma Oliv. (Aristolochiaceae), is an endangered perennial herb endemic to China. It is a phylogenetically, ecologically, and medicinally important species. In the present study, inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were employed to investigate the genetic diversity and differentiation of 14 populations. A total of 16 selected primers yielded 175 bright and discernible bands, with an average of 10.94 per primer. POPGENE analysis showed that the genetic diversity was quite low at the population level (h = 0.0447–0.1243; I = 0.0642–0.1853; PPB = 10.29–36.57%), but pretty high at the species level (h = 0.2603; I = 0.3857; PPB = 73.71%). The hierarchical analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed a high level of genetic differentiation among populations (67.18% of total variance components, P < 0.001), in line with the gene differentiation coefficient (G _ST = 0.6903) and the limited among-population gene flow (N _m = 0.2243). Both Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA) and UPGMA cluster analysis supported the grouping of all 14 populations into three geographic groups, among which there occurred a moderate level of genetic differentiation (33.18% of total variance components, P < 0.001) as shown by AMOVA analysis. In addition, Mantel test revealed a significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances among populations (r = 0.7792, P = 0.001), indicating the role of geographic isolation in shaping its present population genetic structure. The present levels and patterns of genetic diversity of S. henryi were assumed to result largely from its breeding system, geographic isolation, clonal growth, its unique biological traits and evolutionary history. The high genetic differentiation among populations implies that the conservation efforts should aim to preserve all the extant populations of this endangered herb.     

Habent Fata Sua: The Rise and Fall of Garden Plants

Background: Rare cactus in the Americas and other species worldwide are threatened species because of their high level of habitat specialisation, narrow distribution range and continuing population decline.

Aims: To identify management units (MUs) based on genetic variability and demographic structure in order to propose assertive conservation actions for Mammillaria crucigera and to provide a model case study for other species that are under similar threats.

Methods: We genotyped through eight microsatellite loci in 171 individuals and described demographic structures in six populations of this cactus based on plots of 1 m².

Results: Across populations with a mean density of 2.6 m^?2 and a total of ~500 individuals counted, 30% of the individuals were reproductive (diameter >2 cm). The total heterozygosity was low (H_O = 0.54), but the inbreeding coefficient (F_IS = 0.29) and the allele diversity (N_A = 20) were high. Four genetic groups were distinguished, although considering the demographic structure, we propose three MUs.

Conclusions: It is critical to maintain the genetic connectivity within and among MUs, which can only be achieved through cooperation between government authorities and local habitants to halt the degradation and further destruction of the remnant populations. Searching MUs allows the identification of critical areas for conservation issues for all species whose extant populations are in a fragmented landscape.     

A rapid PCR-based diagnostic test for the identification of subspecies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia saligna</Emphasis>

Subspecific taxa of species complexes can display cryptic morphological variation, and individuals and populations can often be difficult to identify with certainty. However, accurate population identification is required for comprehensive conservation and breeding strategies and for studies of invasiveness and gene flow. Using five informative microsatellite markers and a Bayesian statistical approach, we developed an efficient polymerase chain reaction-based diagnostic tool for the rapid identification of individuals and populations of the Acacia saligna species complex of Western Australia. We genotyped 189 individuals from 14 reference populations previously characterised based on morphology and used these data to investigate population structure in the species complex. High total genetic diversity (H _T = 0.729) and high population differentiation (θ = 0.355) indicated strong intraspecific structuring. With the provision of prior population information, the reference data set was optimally resolved into four clusters, each corresponding to one of the four main proposed subspecies, with very high membership values (Q > 97%). The reference data set was then used to assign individuals and test populations to one of the four subspecies. Assignment was unequivocal for all test individuals from two populations of subsp. lindleyi and for all but one individual of subsp. stolonifera. Individuals from populations of subsp. saligna and subsp. pruinescens showed a degree of genetic affinity for the two subspecies in their assignments, although the majority of individuals were correctly assigned to subspecies. The diagnostic tool will assist in characterising populations of A. saligna, especially naturalised and invasive populations of unknown origin.     

Genetic variability of the narrow endemic Rhamnus persicifolia Moris (Rhamnaceae) and its implications for conservation

Rhamnus persicifolia Moris is an endemic small tree belonging to the Rhamnus cathartica group, growing along mountainous streams of Central-Eastern Sardinia (Italy). ISSR markers were used to detect the genetic diversity within and among six populations representative of the species distribution range. In spite of the limited distribution of this endemic taxon, fairly high levels of genetic diversity were detected. Percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB), gene diversity (H_S and H_T) and Shannon information measure (Sh) were calculated both at population (PPB = 30.70%, H_S = 0.1105, Sh = 0.1646) and at species level (PPB = 68.42%, H_T = 0.2066, Sh = 0.3139).The existence of a spatial distribution of genetic diversity in R. persicifolia was revealed by a low gene flow, a fairly high level of genetic differentiation (G_ST = 0.4583) among populations and a positive correlation between genetic and geographic distances (Mantel test, r = 0.71, p = 0.016). The spatial genetic structure was also confirmed with BAPS analysis. Our results show that a certain level of isolation by distance and sex-ratio bias may explain the distribution of genetic diversity among populations.Conservation measures are suggested on the basis of the genetic diversity detected, by implementing an integrated in situ and ex situ conservation program for each population, in order to ensure effective protection for this endemic species.     

Landscape discontinuities influence the population structure of Acer opalus ssp. obtusatum Waldst. & Kit. ex Willdenow

The major goal of landscape genetics is to understand how landscape structure genetic variation in natural populations. We investigated molecular diversity in Acer opalus subsp. obtusatum sampled from 95 sites using 14 nuclear microsatellite loci. The average number of alleles per nuclear microsatellite locus differed among sampling sites; the number was high (4.9 alleles) in populations from the Basilicata and Molise regions, where heterozygosity was also high (0.679, Molise; 0.669, Basilicata). Differentiation between sites was often low (mean F_ST = 0.220), indicating few genetic differences between most sites. There was a clear excess of homozygotes (mean H_o = 0.450, mean H_e = 0.513) and a relatively high F_IS (mean = 0.451), suggesting a consistent level of inbreeding in many A. opalus subsp. obtusatum populations. There was a significant pattern of isolation by distance across the study area (Mantel test; R² = 0.0662, P < 0.001). Two assignment methods (Structure and Geneland) produced some similarities in their definitions of population structure, especially for populations from the Campania and Tuscany regions. These two important genetic discontinuities were not associated with any physical barriers.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered Chinese endemic herb Primulina tabacum (Gesneriaceae) revealed by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

Primulina tabacum Hance, is a critically endangered perennial endemic to limestone area in South China. Genetic variability within and among four extant populations of this species was assessed using AFLP markers. We expected a low genetic diversity level of this narrowly distributed species, but our results revealed that a high level of genetic diversity remains, both at population level (55.5% of markers polymorphic, H _E = 0.220, I _S = 0.321), and at species level (P = 85.6% of markers polymorphic, H _E = 0.339, I _S = 0.495), probably resulting from its refugial history and/or breeding system. High levels of genetic differentiation among populations was apparent based on Nei’s genetic diversity analysis (G _st=0.350). The restricted gene flow between populations is a potential reason for the high genetic differentiation. The population genetic diversity of P. tabacum revealed here has clear implications for conservation and management. To maintain present levels of genetic diversity, in situ conservation of all populations is necessary.     

Population genetic diversity and divergence of the halobiotic herb Limonium sinense estimated by AFLP and ISSR, and implications for conservation

Limonium sinense is a halobiotic herb endemic to China that has been traditionally used for hundreds of years for its good restorative function. Genetic variation and population structure of this species were investigated by using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs). A high level of genetic diversity was detected [AFLP: H _E = 0.284, percentage of polymorphic loci (PPL) = 92.68 %; ISSR: H _E = 0.257, PPL = 85.71 %] at the species level with POPGENE. Based on analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA), the among-population component accounted for 29.03 % (AFLP) and 28.81 % (ISSR) of the genetic variation, indicating that most of the genetic variation was between individuals within populations. The Shannon diversity index (I) was higher for AFLP (0.432) than for ISSR (0.395). Five main clusters were shown in the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) dendrogram created using TFPGA, consistent with the result of principal coordinate analysis using NTSYS. In situ conservation is advocated first. Keeping a stable environment for this halobiotic herb is necessary. For ex situ conservation, it is important to establish a germplasm bank. AFLP and ISSR markers were proved to be efficient tools in assessing the genetic variation among populations of L. sinense. The patterns of variation appeared to be consistent for these two marker systems, and they can be used for management of genetic structure, protection of the halobiotic plant, and conservation of germplasm.     

Population structure and genetic diversity of Dysosma versipellis (Berberidaceae), a rare endemic from China

Dysosma versipellis (Berberidaceae) is an endangered and endemic species in China. To provide scientific foundation for formulating conservation strategies, we sampled six extant populations of this species and assessed the levels and patterns of genetic diversity using ISSR markers (11 primers). Of 144 bands detected 57.64% were polymorphic, but on average only 20.72% were polymorphic within populations. Our results revealed a low level of intraspecific genetic diversity (at population level: H_pop = 0.082, H_B = 0.177, SI = 0.1194; at species level: H_pop = 0.207, H_B = 0.378, SI = 0.3069). A high level of genetic differentiations among populations was detected based on Nei's genetic diversity analysis (60%), AMOVA analysis (65%), and Bayesian analysis (53%). The low levels of heterozygosity and high genetic differentiation observed in D. versipellis may be the consequence of low rate of natural recruitment, clonal growth, gene drift, and habitat fragmentation. Based on this, we suggest that in situ conservation be an important and practical measure for maintaining the genetic diversity of this species. Ex situ conservation should sample from different populations across the distribution range of the species to conserve high genetic diversity.     

Conservation genetics of the endangered terrestrial orchid Liparis japonica in Northeast China based on AFLP markers

Levels of genetic diversity and population genetic structure of the rare, endangered terrestrial orchid Liparis japonica were examined for eight natural populations (n = 185) in Northeast China using six AFLP primer pairs, where this species has experienced severe habitat loss and fragmentation. Based on 406 DNA bands, a high level of genetic diversity was found at the species level with the PPB of 85.47 %, while the genetic diversity at the population level was low (PPB = 47.48 %). A significantly high degree of population differentiation was found with 42.69 % variation existed among populations as measured by AMOVA, indicating potential restricted gene flow. The genetic distances between populations were independent of the corresponding geographic distances, and the genetic relationship of individuals had no significant correlation with their spatial distribution. The restricted gene flow might be impacted by reduced population size, habitat destruction and fragmentation. The results in this study suggested that habitat protection and keeping a stable environment are critical for the conservation of L. japonica species.     

Population structure and genetic diversity distribution in wild and cultivated populations of the traditional Chinese medicinal plant Magnolia officinalis subsp. biloba (Magnoliaceae)

Magnolia officinalis subsp. biloba, a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, experienced severe declines in the number of populations and the number of individuals in the late 20th century due to the widespread harvest of the subspecies. A large-scale cultivation program was initiated and cultivated populations rapidly recovered the loss in individual plant numbers, but wild populations remained small as a consequence of cutting. In this study, the levels of genetic variation and genetic structure of seven wild populations and five domestic populations of M. officinalis subsp. biloba were estimated employing an AFLP methodology. The plant exhibited a relatively high level of intra-population genetic diversity (h = 0.208 and H _j = 0.268). The cultivated populations maintained approximately 95% of the variation exhibited in wild populations, indicating a slight genetic bottleneck in the cultivated populations. The analysis of genetic differentiation revealed that most of the AFLP diversity resided within populations both for the wild group (78.22%) and the cultivated group (85.92%). Genetic differentiation among populations in the wild group was significant (F _ST = 0.1092, P < 0.005), suggesting wild population level genetic structure. Principal coordinates analysis (PCO) did not discern among wild and cultivated populations, indicating that alleles from the wild population were maintained in the cultivated gene pool. Results from the present study provide important baseline data for effectively conserving the genetic resources of this medicinal subspecies.     

Genetic diversity and structure of a rare endemic cactus and an assessment of its genetic relationship with a more common congener

Endemic, obligate outcrossing plant species with narrow geographic distributions and disjunct populations are prone to loss of genetic diversity. Simultaneously, delineating clear species boundaries is important for targeted conservation efforts. The rare and endemic cactus, Sclerocactus brevihamatus subsp. tobuschii (SBT), has a parapatric relationship with Sclerocactus brevihamatus subsp. brevihamatus (SBB) but genetic distance between the two taxa is unknown. We: (1) developed taxon-specific polymorphic microsatellites, (2) assessed genetic diversity within and among nine populations of SBT, and within one population of SBB, and (3) estimated the genetic relationship between the two subspecies. Within-population genetic diversity of SBT was moderate to high (mean H_o?=?0.37; mean H_e?=?0.59). Indirect estimate of inbreeding corrected for null alleles (F_is-INEst) was low for SBT, ranging from 0.03 to 0.14 (mean F_is-INEst?=?0.07). Genetic differentiation among populations of SBT was low based on F_st (0.08) and AMOVA (Ф_PT?=?0.10). Lack of genetic and spatial correlation in SBT populations coupled with the presence of private alleles and bottleneck events in several populations suggests that reproductive isolation is occurring but that sufficient time may not have yet passed to manifest strong differentiation. Cluster analyses segregated the 10 populations into three distinct groups, and separated SBB genotypes clearly. Results suggest that while hybridization between the two subspecies may occur, SBT is clearly differentiated genetically from SBB to retain its current taxonomic status.     

The ‘paradigm of extremes’: extremely low genetic diversity in an extremely narrow endemic species, Coristospermum huteri (Umbelliferae)

Low levels of genetic diversity in endemic species are generally attributable to the small size of their populations. This lack of genetic variability will, predictably, be more evident in those species that occur in only one or a very few localities with a total population consisting of a few dozen individuals, or sometimes fewer (i.e. ‘extremely narrow endemics’, ENEs). We used allozyme electrophoresis to survey the genetic variability of Coristospermum huteri, an endemic species from the island of Majorca (Balearic Islands, W. Mediterranean Basin) with a single natural population of about 100 individuals. As expected, allozyme variability was virtually nil for this species (P = 8.3 %, A = 1.08, H _e = 0.022), which seems to be a general rule for ENEs (mean H _e = 0.057). A founder effect associated with a dispersal event from the continent is probably behind the lack of genetic diversity in this highly threatened species. Preservation of the mountain summit where the plant is found (Puig Major) is essential for the survival of C. huteri, and would also guarantee the conservation of other ENEs and rare and threatened species.     

Conservation genetics of the annual hemiparasitic plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Melampyrum sylvaticum</Emphasis> (Orobanchaceae) in the UK and Scandinavia

Melampyrum sylvaticum is an endangered annual hemiparasitic plant that is found in only 19 small and isolated populations in the United Kingdom (UK). To evaluate the genetic consequences of this patchy distribution we compared levels of diversity, inbreeding and differentiation from ten populations from the UK with eight relatively large populations from Sweden and Norway where the species is more continuously distributed. We demonstrate that in both the UK and Scandinavia, the species is highly inbreeding (global F _IS = 0.899). Levels of population differentiation were high (F’_ST = 0.892) and significantly higher amongst UK populations (F’_ST = 0.949) than Scandinavian populations (F’_ST = 0.762; P < 0.01). The isolated populations in the UK have, on average, lower genetic diversity (allelic richness, proportion of loci that are polymorphic, gene diversity) than Scandinavian populations, and this diversity difference is associated with the smaller census size and population area of UK populations. From a conservation perspective, the naturally inbreeding nature of the species may buffer the species against immediate effects of inbreeding depression, but the markedly lower levels of genetic diversity in UK populations may represent a genetic constraint to evolutionary change. In addition, the high levels of population differentiation suggest that gene flow among populations will not be effective at replenishing lost variation. We thus recommend supporting in situ conservation management with ex situ populations and human-mediated seed dispersal among selected populations in the UK.     

Strong genetic differentiation of the East-Himalayan <Emphasis Type="Italic">Megacodon stylophorus</Emphasis> (Gentianaceae) detected by Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR)

Megacodon stylophorus (Clarke) Smith is a perennial alpine herb endemic to the species-rich eastern Himalayan region. Its populations are locally scattered as isolated patches throughout this region. Genetic variation within and among six populations of this species was assessed using ISSR fingerprinting with 13 primers. High levels of genetic diversity exist within species (P = 69.83%, H_T = 0.1949 and H_sp = 0.3047), while the within-population diversity is low (P = 11.21%, H_E = 0.0532 and H_pop = 0.0792). Extraordinarily high levels of genetic differentiation were detected among populations based on various statistics, including Neis genetic diversity analysis (72.7%), Shannons diversity index (74.01%) and AMOVA (80.70%). That is, populations shared low levels of genetic identity (I = 0.8203 ± 0.0430). This genetic structure was probably due to severe genetic drift of the small-sized patchy populations resulting from postglacial habitat fragmentations. The observed genetic structure of the populations implies that as many populations as possible should be considered for any in situ and ex situ conservation practice on this species.     

High genetic diversity in Taihangia rupestris Yu et Li,a rare cliff herb endemic to China,based on inter-simple sequence repeat markers

Taihangia rupestris Yu et Li is an endangered perennial herb endemic to China. Besides being at an important systematic position in the tribe Dryadeae, it also is a valuable wild flower resource. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were employed to estimate the genetic diversity and genetic differentiation of ten populations. Relatively high genetic diversity was detected at species levels (PPB = 80.43; h = 0.2479; I = 0.3785). Most of the variation (73.51%) occurred within populations, and 26.49% was found among populations; Nei’s differentiation coefficient (Gst = 0.2435) supported this result. The Mantel test revealed a significantly positive correlation between geographical distance and genetic distance (r = 0.611, P < 0.001). The levels and patterns of genetic diversity of T. rupestris were assumed to result from its ancient origin and mixed reproductive modes. Based on these results, both ex situ and in situ conservation are proposed.     

Genetic structure and diversity of Coscinium fenestratum: a critically endangered liana of Western Ghats,India

Coscinium fenestratum is a critically endangered medicinal plant, well-known for its bioactive isoquinoline alkaloid berberine. The species has been over harvested from its natural habitats to meet the huge requirement of raw drug market and industrial consumption. This has lead to a rapid decline in the population size and has also led to local population extinction at few locations in the Western Ghats, India. In this study, inter-simple sequence repeat markers were used to investigate the genetic variation and population structure of seven extant populations of C. fenestratum from the central Western Ghats, India. Eight primer combination produced a total of 57 unambiguous bands, of which (47.1 %) were polymorphic. The species exhibited a moderate to low level of intra population genetic diversity (H _s = 0.347 ± 0.008; H _t = 0.378 ± 0.006 (POPGENE) and H _s = 0.262 ± 0.0028; H _t = 0.204 ± 0.020 (HICKORY)). The populations were low to moderately differentiated from one another (G _ST = 0.221) and geographical distance was not significantly correlated with genetic distance, suggesting that these long-lived, geographically distant remnant populations were once connected through gene flow. There was a significant amount of genetic variation among populations (19.85 %). The Bayesian software STRUCTURE and HICKORY were used to further reveal the genetic structure of C. fenestratum. The results revealed weak population structure (K = 2) with one single widespread gene pool, and indicated that gene flow and inbreeding are likely to be the major driving force in shaping current population genetic structure of C. fenestratum. Thus, an understanding of the genetic diversity and population structure of C. fenestratum can provide insight into the conservation and management of this species.     

Population genetic structure of the endangered Eastern Bristlebird, Dasyornis brachypterus; implications for conservation

For species that are habitat specialists or sedentary, population fragmentation may lead to genetic divergence between populations and reduced genetic diversity within populations, with frequent inbreeding. Hundreds of kilometres separate three geographical regions in which small populations of the endangered Eastern Bristlebird, Dasyornis brachypterus, a small, ground-dwelling passerine that occurs in fire-prone bushland in eastern Australia, are currently found. Here, we use mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers to: (i) assess the sub-specific taxonomy designated to northern range-edge, and central and southern range-edge D. brachypterus, respectively, and (ii) assess levels of standing genetic variation and the degree of genetic subdivision of remnant populations. The phylogenetic relationship among mtDNA haplotypes and their spatial distribution did not support the recognised subspecies boundaries. Populations in different regions were highly genetically differentiated, but in addition, the two largest, neighboring populations (located within the central region and separated by ~50 km) were moderately differentiated, and thus are likely closed to migration (microsatellites, F _ST = 0.06; mtDNA, F _ST = 0.12, ?? _ST = 0.08). Birds within these two populations were genotypically diverse and apparently randomly mating. A long-term plan for the conservation of D. brachypterus??s genetic diversity should consider individual populations as separate management units. Moreover, managers should avoid actively mixing birds from different populations or regions, to conserve the genetic integrity of local populations and avoid outbreeding depression, should further translocations be used as a recovery tool for this species.     

Genetic diversity and genetic structure in wild populations of Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens H.B.K.) and its relationship with the chemical composition of the essential oil

Mexican oregano is an aromatic plant traditionally harvested from wild populations by rural communities; however, there is little information about population genetics aspects of this species. Moreover, considering that the variation in essential oil production of aromatic plants has been attributed to several environmental as well as genetic factors, in this study we estimated the genetic diversity and genetic structure from 14 wild populations of L. graveolens located in four different bioclimatic regions in southeastern Mexico using AFLP markers. The overall genetic diversity of L. graveolens described as the percentage of polymorphic loci (PPL = 60.9 %) and Nei’s gene diversity (H _j  = 0.17) was moderate, but not associated with the bioclimatic conditions. Genetic variation was analyzed at chemotype and population levels. Regarding chemotypes, thymol had the highest genetic diversity (PPL = 82.8 % and H _j  = 0.22). PCoA revealed that chemotypes exhibit a certain level of genetic differentiation. Maximum parsimony dendrogram showed a grouping of individuals with a predominant chemotype. Bayesian analyses revealed a low, but significant differentiation among chemotypes (θ _ΙΙ = 0.008). Regarding populations, gene diversity showed significant differences (F _13,1204 = 22.8, P < 0.001); populations dominated by individuals from the thymol chemotype showed the highest gene diversity (H _j  = 0.31–0.25), while populations with exclusively sesquiterpene chemotype showed the lowest value (H _j  = 0.058). Cluster and Bayesian analyses (θ _ΙΙ = 0.027) revealed a low level of genetic differentiation among populations. Correlation analysis showed a significant association between the distance matrices based on the genetic markers (AFLP) and chemical compounds of essential oil (r = 0.06, P < 0.001). Our results suggest an important genetic influence on the observed chemical profiles. Nevertheless, other biotic and abiotic environmental pressures also play an important role in determining the chemotype and structure found in this aromatic species.     

High level of genetic variation within clonal orchid Goodyera repens

Type of reproduction has an important effect on the maintenance of particular populations and species persistence in time and space. This trait significantly influences the ecological and genetic structure of populations, and in consequence the evolution of species. The primary objectives of this study were: to estimate genetic diversity within and among populations of clonal species Goodyera repens from different populations in northeastern Poland, and to amount factors shaping the genetic structure of this orchid. Based on 451 rosettes of G. repens from 11 localities in northeastern Poland, we conducted a genetic population analysis using allozymes. We included information on population size, flowering, fruit set and seed dispersal to elucidate their influences on genetic diversity of this species. Populations differed according to demographic properties. The majority of seeds (86.4–94.8 %) were found at a distance of 0.2 m. We observed a high level of genetic (P _PL = 50 %, A = 1.68, H _O = 0.210, H _E = 0.204) and genotypic diversity (G = 163, G/N _S = 0.66, G _U = 30.2 %), and low but statistically significant genetic differentiation among populations (F _ST = 0.060; P < 0.001). We suggest that the genetic diversity of G. repens is mainly an effect of the abundance of pine and spruce forest communities suitable for this species in NE Poland and the high level of sexual reproduction.