Aerobiology of Fagaceae pollen in Trieste (NE Italy)

The aerobiological behaviour of Fagaceae in Trieste and the correlations with the meteorological parameters were examined. Airborne pollen grains of Castanea, Fagus and Quercus were collected from 1990 to 2003 using a Hirst type spore trap. The main pollen season (MPS) takes place in April and May for Quercus and Fagus, in June and July for Castanea. The highest values occur in year 1993 for Quercus, in 1998 for Castanea and in 1992 for Fagus. The Fagaceae content of the air is mainly due to Quercus and Castanea pollen, Fagus usually having a scarce pollen shedding in Trieste. The highest counts of Fagaceae pollen grains are found from late April to mid May and are mainly due to the pollen shedding of oaks. The cumulative counts vary over the years, with a mean value of 2.719 pollen grains, a lowest total of 1.341 in 2002 and a highest total of 4.704 in 1993. No positive nor negative long-term trends in pollen shedding are found. No cyclic variations were observed. Spearman’s correlation was used to establish the relationship between the daily pollen counts and the daily meteorological data. Daily pollen concentrations present sometimes positive correlation with temperature, negative with rainfall and wind speed, and no correlation with humidity. Fagus and Quercus start dates result positively correlated between themselves. Significant correlations are found between the start of MPS and the mean and maximum temperature in March for Fagus and Quercus, and May for Castanea.     

Vegetation dynamics of south-western Italy in the last 28 kyr inferred from pollen analysis of a Tyrrhenian Sea core

A continuous pollen record covering the last 28 kyr was obtained from core C106 collected in the Bay of Salerno in the southern Tyrrhenian Basin, seven radiocarbon dates and the recognition of two tephra layers (Y3 and Pompeii Pumice) providing good chronological constraints. The clear climatic signal given by the pollen spectra integrated by isotopic data, combined with comparisons with other Mediterranean sites, allowed the Last Glacial, Late Glacial and Holocene periods to be distinguished in the core. In particular, the Last Glacial period is characterised by large quantities of herbaceous and steppe elements such as Artemisia. The beginning of the Late Glacial has been correlated with the first increase of deciduous Quercus and the reduction of steppe and herbaceous elements. The Younger Dryas event is recorded only by oxygen isotopes while the vegetation does not seem to change, as in other Mediterranean sites. The Holocene corresponds to rich deciduous and evergreen forests. The first features which could be interpreted as signs of human presence are represented by a few grains of Juglans, Castanea and cereal-type while intensive olive cultivation and deforestation seem to fall within the Middle Ages. Received October 10, 2001 / Accepted June 20, 2002 Correspondence to: Elda Russo Ermolli     

Vegetational and climatic investigations in the Early Miocene lacustrine deposits of the Güvem Basin (Galatean Volcanic Province), NW Central Anatolia, Turkey

The palynological analysis of the Burdigalian (Early Miocene) successions of the Güvem Basin (NW Central Anatoia, Turkey) has been carried out with the aim of reconstructing the palaeovegetation. The pollen spectra indicate a flora dominated by trees such as Quercus deciduous type, Carya, Carpinus, Ulmus/Zelkova, Engelhardia, Quercus ilex type and Pinaceae. Pterocarya, Juglans, Alnus, Salix, Liquidambar and Oleaceae are represented by lower percentages. Herbs and shrubs are represented by minor amounts of Poaceae, Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae/Asteroideae, Brassicaceae, and the aquatics Potamogeton, Sparganium and Typha. The Burdigalian flora reflects a mixed mesophytic forest with Quercus deciduous type, Quercus ilex type, pine species, Ulmus/Zelkova, Engelhardia, Carya, Carpinus, Pterocarya, etc., sparcely interspersed with open herbaceous areas. This flora reflects a warm-temperate climate. The fluctuations in abundances of broadleaved trees and xerophytes may represent fluctuations of relatively wet and dry periods. The overall composition of the flora of the Güvem Basin reflects cooler conditions compared with other Early Miocene floras in Europe, which is possibly due to intense volcanic activity of the area.     

四川螺髻山表土和化石孢粉揭示的环境生态意义

通过四川螺髻山（1984、2017年）表土和化石孢粉与植被的关系分析发现：孢粉组合中木本植物含量（91.0%）占绝对优势,松属、冷杉属、青冈属、常绿栎类、落叶栎类、桤木属、杜鹃花科、禾本科和蒿属为主要花粉类型;人工次生林花粉组合能很好地反映母体植被的群落特征,并可指示优势种的存在和人类活动痕迹;针阔混交林花粉组合能较好地反映群落整体特征,花粉类型能与母体植被中优势种较好地对应;常绿阔叶林、针叶林和灌丛草甸的花粉组合难以反映母体植被的群落特征。DCA表明,花粉谱的百分含量,能较好地区分人工扰动植被和天然植被,但人工次生林、常绿阔叶林和针阔混交林之间以及针叶林和灌丛草甸之间未能区分。30年前后表土孢粉组合变化明显,1984年样品以松属、青冈属和桤木属等花粉为主,而2017年采样分析中松属、桤木属花粉占绝对优势。随着人类活动的加强,部分地区松树和桤木大面积飞播或种植,表土孢粉组合对当地植被指示意义与扰动强度呈负相关关系。现生植被与表土孢粉组合的差异能为恢复古植被和古环境提供参考,但原生植被已经被破坏地区的孢粉图谱,就很难作为重建历史时期植被的根据。本研究可以为亚热带山地利用孢粉学恢复第四纪时期植被与气候,探讨人类活动与环境的关系提供理论依据和实践参考。     

Pollen analysis of coal-bearing Miocene sedimentary rocks from the Seyitömer Basin (Kütahya), Western Anatolia

The late Early-Middle Miocene sequences of the Seyitömer Basin (western Anatolia) were palynologically investigated. Fifty-five taxa belonging to seven gymnospermous and 48 angiospermous pollen genera were identified in the 19 productive samples. Two pollen zones were recognised based on the changing abundance of individual tree taxa. Zone 1 is characterized by predominance of Pinus and Cedrus. Zone 2 is characterized by predominance of deciduous Quercus and evergreen Quercus and a marked reduction in representation of Taxodiaceae. The differences in the pollen spectra between Zone 1 and Zone 2 may reflect the global Middle Miocene cooling. These results are largely comparable to pollen data derived from the neighbouring areas. The vegetation of the Seyitömer Basin was dominated by trees. This palynological analysis reveals the existence of a swamp-forest developed in a subtropical to warm-temperate humid climate.     

An Ultrastructural Study of Pollen Grains Consumed by Larvae of Osmia Bees (Hymenoptera,Megachilidae)

Pollen samples from provisions and faeces found in the nests of four Osmia species were analyzed by SEM and TEM. The pollen grains studied were Cistus, Sonchus type oleraceus. Primus type dulcis, and Quercus type ilex. The apertures of Cistus and Sonchus pollen stored in the provisions were slightly expanded, and the cytoplasm protruded through them. Conversely, Prunus and Quercus pollen grains showed hardly any signs of such apertural protrusions. Further, the cytoplasm of Cistus and Sonchus pollen (which have thin intines) was almost entirely lacking in the pollen grains recovered from faeces, while in the faecal pollen grains of Prunus and Quercus (with thick intines) the cytoplasm was much less modified. These preliminary results indicate that both the protrusion of the cytoplasm in the provisions and the thickness of the intine may play an important role in the digestion of pollen grains by Osmia bee larvae.     

Pollen morphology of Quercus sect. Ilex and its relevance for fossil pollen identification in southwest China

Pollen grains of 16 modern species of Quercus were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy (LM). The focus of this investigation was on a small group (c. eight species) of alpine, sclerophyllous oaks that may form a monophyletic group within sect. Ilex. The data were combined with published data for Polar axis (P) and Equatorial diameter (E) for more than 80 species. Based on pollen morphology Quercus pollen grains were divided into three types: (1) The Cyclobalanopsis type is smallest (generally < 23 μm) in size, with P/E ratios of approximately 1.08 and a psilate or fine-grained surface; (2) Quercus sect. Ilex type is 23–29 μm, the P/E ratio is approximately 1.24 (prolate) and it has a rugulate pollen surface; (3) the Quercus sect. Quercus type is generally > 29 μm in size, has a P/E ratio of approximately 1.04, and a clearly verrucate pollen surface. Based on a comparison with modern pollen size and ornamentation, fossil pollen grains of the Quaternary Qinghai Lake core can be assigned to the Chinese southwest mountain oak group of Quercus sect. Ilex (in particular Quercus semecarpifolia). In addition, we show that the pollen percentages of Quercus rapidly increased to the highest level during the glacial period. Using SEM for the identification of fossil Quercus pollen grains is essential to ensure the accuracy of differentiating evergreen Quercus types (sect. Ilex versus sect. Cyclobalanopsis) during the last glacial period in southwest China.     

Vegetation history in the Eastern Romanian Carpathians: pollen analysis of two sequences from the Mohoş crater

Two sequences of about 10.5 m originating from a peat bog in Romania were analysed for pollen (202 and 127 pollen spectra). The vegetation history, supported by 24 ¹⁴C dates is described since the Late Glacial. At the onset of the Holocene Ulmus first appears, together with Betula. Among the main components of the Quercetum mixtum (Quercus, Fraxinus, Tilia, Corylus) that became established almost simultaneously by around 9000 B.P., Quercus frequencies rarely exceed 10%. The local establishment of Carpinus is about 6000 b.p. Its maximum occurred between 4500 and 3000 b.p. Fagus pollen is regularly recorded since 8000 b.p. Its absolute dominance tooks place at about 3000 b.p. Picea pollen is present since the Late Glacial. The first indications of human activities appear at around 6500 b.p.     

Modern pollen and vegetation relationships in the mountains of southern California,USA

The relationship between modern pollen assemblages and modern vegetation along two elevational transects within the Transverse and Peninsular Ranges of southern California, USA, is demonstrated using cluster analysis of the pollen data. Cluster analysis separates the Sonora Desert vegetation, Valley grassland/agricultural land and chaparral vegetation types on the San Jacinto Mountains transect. Chaparral is not easily separated on the San Bernardino Mountains transect, probably due to the presence of Quercus dumosa (scrub oak) there. The lower montane Quercus – Pinus (oak – pine) community is distinct from other forest types, and can be subdivided palynologically based upon relative importance of Quercus, Pinus and Cupressaceae [primarily Calocedrus decurrens (incense cedar)] pollen. Subdivisions include Quercus – Pinus – Cupressaceae, Quercus – Cupressaceae – Pinus and Quercus – Pinus assemblages. Higher elevation Pinus – Abies (pine – fir) and Pinus-dominated communities are also differentiated from one another, although the subalpine vegetation type only occurs on the San Bernardino Mountains transect. Though the study area presently straddles a transition between winter-wet and summer-wet climatic regimes, differences between the pollen assemblages in the two mountain ranges are minimal. Pollen assemblages from lower elevations document the effects of human activities, primarily agriculture, on the modern pollen rain of the region, with the occurrence of introduced citrus (Citrus sp.) and shade (Eucalyptus sp.) trees and weedy disturbance indicators (e.g., Brassicaceae).     

Elevational gradients during the Late-Glacial/Holocene vegetational transition in southern Bulgaria

The Late Glacial and early-Holocene vegetational history of a newly dated pollen and macrofossil diagram from Besbog, a cirque lake at 2250 m just above the forest limit in the Pirin Mountains of southwestern Bulgaria, is compared with a newly dated pollen diagram for the mire Shiroka Polyana at 1400 m in the conifer forest of the nearby Rhodope Mountains in order to investigate the chronology of major changes in the vegetation at different elevations. In the Lake Besbog record the non-arboreal pollen assemblage of the Late Glacial changed abruptly to that of Betula, Quercus and other deciduous types. The date for this change is about 11.6 ka cal b.p. The Quercus assemblage may be composed of pollen blown from intermediate elevations, to which deciduous forest had expanded because of higher summer temperatures related to high summer insolation. At Shiroka Polyana (1400 m) in the modern conifer belt, a similar change did not occur until about 8.8 ka cal b.p. The persistence of the dry steppe or steppe forest in the early Holocene at this lower site can also be attributed to high summer insolation. Thus as atmospheric temperature increased at the end of the Late Glacial, deciduous forests expanded first at intermediate elevations in the Pirin Mountains and only later in the Rhodope Mountains at lower elevations as summer insolation decreased.     

Comparison between two adhesives (silicone and petroleum jelly) in Hirst pollen traps in a controlled environment

Aerobiological sampling through volumetric pollen traps requires the use of an appropriate adhesive, whose selection is a critical factor in these studies. This study compares the differences between two adhesives that have been widely used in aerobiological studies with the aim of providing a persuasive argument for using petroleum jelly as a viable alternative to silicone diluted with the banned substance carbon tetrachloride. The study was performed using Hirst-type pollen traps in an indoor controlled environment to avoid interference attributed to outdoor meteorological parameters. Furthermore, a gravimetric study was conducted simultaneously as a control. Four different pollen types with different pollen sizes and similar flowering seasons were studied (Acer, Platanus, Quercus and Rumex). Differences between pollen traps were minimised by interchanging the drums in each pollen trap every 24 hours. Gravimetric results showed homogeneous airborne pollen distribution in the study. No statistically significant differences were found between the results for the sample adhesives for Quercus and Platanus, whereas significant differences were observed for Rumex and Acer. In the case of Acer, more pollen grains were recorded using the petroleum jelly, while for Rumex, more pollen grains were recorded with silicone. After this experiment we consider that petroleum jelly can be used as a viable alternative adhesive to the banned silicone diluted with carbon tetrachloride.     

The long-term ecology of the lost forests of La Laguna, Tenerife (Canary Islands)

Aim We report the first analysis of the long‐term ecology of Tenerife, in order to establish a pre‐colonization base‐line and to assess the effect of human activity and the role of climatic variation on vegetation during the Late Holocene. Location A former lake bed in the city of La Laguna (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain). Methods A sedimentary sequence of over 2 m was obtained from the former lake bed. Fossil pollen and microfossil charcoal concentrations were analysed. Radiocarbon dating of the sequence indicates that it spans approximately the last 4700 years. The pollen diagram was zoned using optimal splitting within psimpoll 4.25. Results Three pollen zones were differentiated: (1) in Zone L1 (c. 4700–2900 cal. yr bp ) a mixed forest was dominated by Quercus, Carpinus, Myrica and Pinus; (2) in Zone L2 (c. 2900–2000 cal. yr bp ) the laurel forest taxa increased, while Pinus, Juniperus and Phoenix declined; and (3) Zone L3 (c. 2000–400 cal. yr bp ) was characterized by the decline of Carpinus and Quercus and the abundance of laurel forest taxa (e.g. Myrica). Neither Carpinus nor Quercus was hitherto considered to be native to the Canary Islands. Their decline started c. 2000 years ago, coinciding with microfossil charcoal evidence of increased burning and with archaeological evidence for the first human settlement on Tenerife. Main conclusions Between c. 4700 and 2000 cal. yr bp , the composition of the forest in the valley of La Laguna was very different from what it is at present. In particular, Quercus and Carpinus appear to have been significant components, alongside components of the present‐day laurel forest, and the native pine (Pinus canariensis) forest and thermophilous woodland were also more prevalent in the region (but probably not within the lake basin itself) until 3000 cal. yr bp . The subsequent decline of Quercus and Carpinus led to the establishment of the present laurel forest in the region and a shift to more open vegetation types. These changes indicate that the aboriginal inhabitants of the islands, the Guanches, had a far more profound impact on the vegetation of Tenerife than hitherto realized.     

Aerobiological study of Fagaceae pollen in the middle-west of Spain

The concentration of airborne Fagaceae pollen in Salamanca and the correlations with some meteorological parameters have been examined. Castanea and Quercus pollen grains were collected from 1998 to 2004 using a Burkard spore trap. No pollen grains of Fagus were found. The main pollen season took place in April and May for Quercus and in June and July for Castanea. Yearly variations on these dates could be related to the influence of meteorological factors such as rainfall, temperature, or dominant winds. The highest values appeared in the year 2004 for both taxa. The Fagaceae airborne content was mainly due to Quercus pollen, Castanea having a scarce pollen content in the city of Salamanca. The highest counts of Fagaceae pollen grains were found from mid May to early June due to the pollen behavior of oaks. The cumulative counts varied over the years, with a mean value of 2,384 pollen grains, a highest total of 6,036 in 2004 and a lowest total of 954 in 2001. No cyclic variations were observed. Daily pollen concentrations presented positive correlation with temperature, negative with relative humidity and slightly negative with rainfall using Spearman's correlation coefficients, only in the case of Castanea, because the particular hourly distribution of rainfall during the spring might affect Quercus airborne pollen.     

Determination of potential sources of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus</Emphasis> airborne pollen in Córdoba city (southern Spain) using back-trajectory analysis

The northern area of Córdoba province (southern Spain) is characterised by a high spatial distribution of Quercus species. In Córdoba city, high airborne Quercus pollen counts are detected during spring despite the low presence of Quercus populations in the Guadalquivir Valley, where this city is located. This study sought to clarify and identify the potential origin of the different Quercus peaks detected in this city and chart the possible relationship between Quercus pollen curves and air-mass movements. For this purpose, an integrated study of daily and intra-diurnal Quercus pollen counts and back-trajectory analysis was performed over the March–June period of the years 2006–2008. The application of cluster techniques to back trajectory enabled the identification of six different types of air-mass movement. As a function of frequency, two different air-mass groups were identified: the main group comprised Local, Slower Northwest and Mediterranean movements, characterised by higher frequencies; a second group consisting of North, Faster Northwest and Southwest trajectories occurred less frequently over the study period. Although a significant correlation was observed between Quercus airborne pollen counts recorded in Córdoba city and the influence of the Mediterranean air-mass movements, the strongest positive correlation was found between North and Northwest air-mass movements and daily Quercus pollen counts. These results would confirm both that the major Quercus pollen sources are located at different distances north of the city and a new pollen source is also located south of the province, beyond the Guadalquivir valley, related to the arrival of Mediterranean air masses. The northern source appears to be linked to regional transport and the southern source to long-range transport.     

Pollen analysis of honeys from the Mamora forest region (NW Morocco)

The present work refers to the pollen analysis of 35 Moroccan honey samples from the Mamora forest region. The samples were directly provided by the beekeepers, all professionals. The quantitative analysis showed that nectar is the main honey source in the samples studied, and that most honeys have a medium-low presence of botanical elements (BEN). The qualitative analysis of the samples showed the presence of 54 taxa belonging to 29 families, and 31 of the samples were unifloral: 24 of eucalyptus, 3 of orange, 2 of Loeflingia, 1 of mint and 1 of Ridolfia segetum. The eucalyptus honeys of the studied region are characterized by their high content in pollen grains (NGP; x¯=180000) and their low honeydew indicator elements content (HDE; x¯=4000); Plantago f. (present in 70% of the samples), Quercus f. and Brassicaceae (50%) and Ceratonia siliqua (30%) could be mentioned among the characteristic accompanying species of this honey type.     

The later Holocene history of vegetation, land-use and settlements around the Ahlequellmoor in the Solling area, Germany

A pollen diagram from the Ahlequellmoor in the Solling area shows the history of vegetation and settlement over the last 7,800 years. In the early Atlantic period mixed deciduous forest with mainly Tilia together with Ulmus and Quercus grew in the area. In the late Atlantic period Quercus became most abundant. Fagus spread in the Sub-boreal period at about 2700 B.C. Since ca. 900 B.C. the Solling was covered by beech forests with some oak. In prehistoric times woodland grazing is indicated. Only in Medieval times are two settlements in the vicinity of the Ahlequellmoor reflected in the pollen diagram. The earlier one is dated to about A.D. 750–1020, and may be connected with the former Monastery of Hethis, which is thought to have existed close to the fen from A.D. 815 to 822. The second Medieval settlement dates to the 11th–12th century. The large-scale woodland destruction of late Medieval and modern times is not clearly visible. The silvicultural measures of the last 200 years are reflected by increasing values of spruce and grassland taxa.     

Phenological records as a complement to aerobiological data

Phenological studies in combination with aerobiological studies enable one to observe the relationship between the release of pollen and its presence in the atmosphere. To obtain a suitable comparison between the daily variation of airborne pollen concentrations and flowering, it is necessary for the level of accuracy of both sets of data to be as similar as possible. To analyse the correlation between locally observed flowering data and pollen counts in pollen traps in order to set pollen information forecasts, pollen was sampled using a Burkard volumetric pollen trap working continuously from May 1993. For the phenological study we selected the main pollen sources of the six pollen types most abundant in our area: Cupressaceae, Platanus, Quercus, Plantago, Olea, and Poaceae with a total of 35 species. We selected seven sites to register flowering or pollination, two with semi-natural vegetation, the rest being urban sites. The sites were visited weekly from March to June in 2007, and from January to June in 2008 and 2009. Pollen shedding was checked at each visit, and recorded as the percentage of flowers or microsporangia in that state. There was an association between flowering phenology and airborne pollen records for some of the pollen types (Platanus, Quercus, Olea and Plantago). Nevertheless, for the other types (Cupressaceae and Poaceae) the flowering and airborne pollen peaks did not coincide, with up to 1 week difference in phase. Some arguments are put forward in explanation of this phenomenon. Phenological studies have shown that airborne pollen results from both local and distant sources, although the pollen peaks usually appear when local sources are shedding the greatest amounts of pollen. Resuspension phenomena are probably more important than long-distance transport in explaining the presence of airborne pollen outside the flowering period. This information could be used to improve pollen forecasts.     

Human impact on the Kiso-hinoki cypress woodland in Japan: a history of exploitation and regeneration

The Kiso-hinoki (Kiso-Japanese cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa) woodland underwent severe deforestation in the early 17th century, then regenerated through conservation during the Edo period. Now, a suitable management strategy is sought in order to maintain its ecological function in the forest. To understand the vegetation changes and human impact, sediment cores were recovered from Lake Tadachi in the Kiso-hinoki cypress woodland in the central uphill region of Honshu island. In addition, stratigraphic pollen analysis on two cores (Nos. 6 and 10) and phytolith analysis on three strata of one core (No. 6) was conducted. The age-depth models were constructed based on ¹⁴C dating, greyscale analysis on the sediments, and the increasing level of Cryptomeria pollen (about a.d. 1960) from the pollen profiles. In all periods, the dominant pollen taxa were Cupressaceae and Quercus subgen. Lepidobalanus type. Our analysis indicates that after the commencement of Shikinen-sengu, which is the rebuilding of the Ise Grand Shrine every 20 years, Cupressaceae pollen decreased and the woodland was gradually replaced by Quercus subgen. Lepidobalanus. The percentages of Cupressaceae pollen decreased dramatically and the expansion of secondary woodlands was accompanied by an increase of Quercus subgen. Lepidobalanus in the early 17th century cal. a.d. However, depletion of the woodland was determined from a decrease in concentration of Quercus pollen. The conservation activity during the Edo period and after the Meiji Restoration brought about woodland recovery. However, based on our pollen and phytolith analysis, significant changes to the woodland habitats can be detected. These were probably due to human impacts, most notably in the years after World War II. Four major turning points as the result of human influence were identified: the 10th century, the late 16th century, the Meiji restoration (a.d. 1863), and the end of World War II. The original cypress woodland mixed with deciduous broad-leaved elements has been greatly reduced, preventing future cypress woodland regeneration after World War II.     

Succession of secondary forests affected by pine wilt disease in western Japan followed on vegetation maps

Abstract. Succession, changes in the distribution pattern of forest vegetation, and Pinus forest survival following pine wilt disease were clarified based on phytosociological analysis and vegetation maps. Survival of Pinus forests was restricted to the early successional stages, which were located on ridges and the upper part of slopes. Subsequent to pine wilt disease, the succession progressed from early to late substages of Pinus forest, mixed deciduous and evergreen Quercus, to evergreen Quercus forest. Succession occurs in abandoned pine forests which apparently are in a bad state and are vulnerable to attacks by pine wilt disease.     

How long has the ‘hotspot’ been ‘hot’? Past stand-scale structures at Siggaboda nature reserve in southern Sweden

Fossil pollen and plant macrofossils over the last 2000 years are documented from three small forest hollows in Southern Sweden. One of the sites is inside a 5 ha highly prized old growth mixed Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies forest of high biodiversity which has been protected since 1940. The other two hollows are located 400 and 700 m away in an outlying buffer zone established in 1995 which is mainly coniferous plantation forest. The results show that the area has been forested for at least 2000 years, but that forest composition has been under continuous change, most rapid over the last 200 years. The reduction of deciduous tree pollen particularly Quercus, Tilia, Alnus and Corylus, and the immigration of Fagus and Picea can be observed at all three sites. However, the temperate deciduous trees (Quercus or Fagus) have been much more common in the ‘hotspot’ than in the surrounding forests over the last c. 200 years, and significantly more common at least 2000 years before that. Even though the vegetation has been dynamic through time, the lower human intervention in the ‘hotspot’ area compared with the surrounding matrix forests has facilitated the longevity of deciduous trees and the many rare species which are associated with them. The palaeoecological record of key species and information on past use of the wider forest area revealed in this study, indicates how future management will require flexibility to maintain conservation ‘hotspots’.