The effects of heat treatment on physical properties and surface roughness of red-bud maple (Acer trautvetteri Medw.) wood

Heat treatment is often used to improve the dimensional stability of wood. In this study, the effects of heat treatment on physical properties and surface roughness of red-bud maple (Acer trautvetteri Medw.) wood were examined. Samples obtained from Düzce Forest Enterprises, Turkey, were subjected to heat treatment at varying temperatures and durations. The physical properties of heat-treated samples were compared against controls in order to determine their; oven-dry density, air-dry density, and swelling properties. A stylus method was employed to evaluate the surface characteristics of the samples. Roughness measurements, using the stylus method, were made in the direction perpendicular to the fiber. Three main roughness parameters; mean arithmetic deviation of profile (Ra), mean peak-to-valley height (Rz), and maximum roughness (Rmax) obtained from the surface of wood, were used to evaluate the effect of heat treatment on the surface characteristics of the specimens. Significant differences were determined (p>0.05) between surface roughness parameters (Ra, Rz, Rmax) at three different temperatures and three periods of heat treatment. The results showed that the values of density, swelling and surface roughness decreased with increasing temperature treatment and treatment times. Red-bud maple wood could be utilized successfully by applying proper heat treatment techniques without any losses in investigated parameters. This is vital in areas, such as window frames, where working stability and surface smoothness are important factors.     

The effects of heat treatment on some technological properties of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood

Heat treatment is often applied to wood species to improve their dimensional stability. This study examined the effect of heat treatment on certain mechanical properties of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), which has industrially high usage potential and large plantations in Turkey. Wood specimens obtained from Bolu, Turkey, were subjected to heat treatment under atmospheric pressure at varying temperatures (120, 150 and 180 degrees C) for varying durations (2, 6 and 10h). The test results of heat-treated Scots pine and control samples showed that technological properties including compression strength, bending strength, modulus of elasticity in bending, janka-hardness, impact bending strength and tension strength perpendicular to grain suffered with heat treatment, and increase in temperature and duration further diminished technological strength values of the wood specimens.     

In vitro regeneration of Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.)

Regenerants were produced from axillary buds, but not from petiole segments, greenwood cuttings and leaf discs. Petiole segments and greenwood cuttings responded by massive callus cell proliferation without adventitious shoot formation. The development of induced buds into shoots occurred on WPM medium containing kinetin. Vigorous shoots larger than 2.0 cm in length were successfully rooted in half strength WPM medium supplemented with 1.0 mg dm^-3 indole-3-butyric acid.     

Comparative phylogeography of red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.): impacts of habitat specialization,hybridization and glacial history

Aim We analysed variation in chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) in red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.) across a large part of their geographic ranges. Acer rubrum is one of the most common and morphologically variable deciduous trees of eastern North America, while its sister species A. saccharinum has a more restricted habitat distribution and displays markedly less morphological variation. Our objective was to infer the impact of biogeographic history on cpDNA diversity and phylogeographic structure in both species. Location Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Methods We sequenced 1289 to 1645 bp of non‐coding cpDNA from A. rubrum (n = 258) and A. saccharinum (n = 83). Maximum parsimony networks and spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) were used to analyse phylogeographic structure. Rarefaction analyses were used to compare genetic diversity. Results A total of 40 cpDNA haplotypes were recovered from A. rubrum (38 haplotypes) and A. saccharinum (7 haplotypes). Five of the seven A. saccharinum haplotypes were shared with nearby samples of A. rubrum. SAMOVA recovered four phylogeographic groups for A. rubrum in: (1) south‐eastern USA, (2) the Gulf and south‐eastern Coastal Plain, (3) the lower Mississippi River Valley, and (4) the central and northern regions of eastern North America. Acer saccharinum had significantly lower haplotype diversity than A. rubrum, and novel haplotypes in post‐glaciated northern limits of its range were shared with A. rubrum. Main conclusions This is the first study of A. rubrum to report a distinct phylogeographic group centred on the lower Mississippi River, and the first to examine data comparatively with A. saccharinum. We hypothesized that A. rubrum would display stronger phylogeographic structure and greater haplotype diversity than A. saccharinum because of its greater geographic range, and ecological and morphological variation. This hypothesis was supported by the cpDNA analysis. The sharing of cpDNA and chloroplast simple sequence repeat (cpSSR) haplotypes in areas of geographic overlap provides evidence of introgression, which led to an increase in haplotype diversity in both species, and to novel phylogeographic structure in A. rubrum. We recommend that introgression be considered, along with other potential causes, as an explanation for the phylogeographic structure of cpDNA in plants.     

The effect of crown architecture on dynamic amplification factor of an open-grown sugar maple (Acer saccharum L.)

Tree failure may cause significant economic and societal disruptions in urban environments. A better understanding of the relationship between branches and stem as they affect the dynamic response of decurrent trees under wind loading is needed to reduce the risk of tree failure. Finite element (FE) models were used to identify the parameters that primarily impact tree response. A base model was developed using data from a sugar maple (Acer saccharum L.) located in Belchertown, MA, USA, from which parametric models were subsequently developed. Confidence in the base model was gained by comparing the natural frequency of this tree with experimental results. Results from a parametric study incorporating changes in eight different tree parameters (stem diameter, slenderness ratio of branches, number of branches, damping ratio, branch attachment heights, branch attachment angles, branch azimuth angles, and elastic modulus) are then presented to help identify critical model properties that affect the dynamic amplification factor (Rd) of the tree. A single parameter was varied in each model while keeping others unchanged from the base model. Parameters with the greatest effect on Rd included stem diameter, number and slenderness of branches in the crown, elastic modulus of stem and branches, and damping ratio. Thus, it may be possible to use pruning to alter crown architecture to reduce the risk of tree failure.     

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal spore populations in sugar maple (Acer saccharum marsh. L.) forests

 The numbers and types of spores of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi occurring in the top 15 cm of the soil in three maple forests in Eastern Canada were investigated using traditional wet-sieving/decanting methods. In the most acid site, at St. Hippolyte, Québec, where the soil had been amended with base cations, after 1 year there was no effect on the numbers of spores present. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal spores present at St. Hippolyte consisted of Glomus rubiforme, other Glomus spp. and Acaulospora spp. Although the sporocarpic species, G. aggregatum, G. macrocarpum and G. rubiforme occurred at St. Hippolyte, they were not found at the two less acid sites (Waterloo, Ontario and Lacolle, Québec) . Spores of Acaulospora spp. were found at all three sites, but were most abundant at St. Hippolyte. At St. Hippolyte the total number of spores was much higher than at the other two sites; at Waterloo numbers were an order of magnitude lower than at St. Hippolyte. It is suggested that G. rubiforme and Acaulospora species may be adapted to acid conditions. Seasonal patterns of spore abundance suggested that Acaulospora spp. may sporulate during the spring, whereas G. rubiforme may sporulate during the fall. Accepted: 6 September 1995     

Anatomical acclimation of mature leaves to increased irradiance in sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.)

Photosynthesis Research - Trees regenerating in the understory respond to increased availability of light caused by gap formation by undergoing a range of morphological and physiological...     

The effects of heat treatment on physical and technological properties and surface roughness of Camiyani Black Pine (Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana var. pallasiana) wood

Heat treatment is often used to improve the dimensional stability of wood. In this study, the effects of heat treatment on physical properties and surface roughness of Camiyani Black Pine (Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana var. pallasiana) wood were examined. Samples obtained from Yenice-Zonguldak Forest Enterprises, Turkey, were subjected to heat treatment at varying temperatures and for varying durations. The physical properties of heat-treated and control samples were tested, and oven-dry density, air-dry density, and swelling properties were determined. The mechanical properties of heat-treated and control samples were tested, and compression strength, and Janka-hardness were determined. A stylus method was employed to evaluate the surface characteristics of the samples. Roughness measurements by the stylus method were made in the direction perpendicular to the fiber. Four main roughness parameters, mean arithmetic deviation of profile (Ra), mean peak-to-valley height (Rz), root mean square roughness (Rq), and maximum roughness (Ry) obtained from the surface of wood were used to evaluate the effect of heat treatment on the surface characteristics of the specimens. Significant difference was determined (p=0.05) between physical and technological properties, and surface roughness parameters (Ra, Rz, Ry, Rq) for three temperatures and three durations of heat treatment. Based on the findings in this study, the results showed that density, swelling, compression strength, Janka-hardness and surface roughness values decreased with increasing treatment temperature and treatment times. Increase in temperature and duration further diminished technological strength values of the wood specimens. Camiyani Black Pine wood could be utilized by using proper heat treatment techniques without any losses in strength values in areas where working, stability, and surface smoothness, such as in window frames, are important factors.     

Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) establishment in boreal forest: results of a transplantation experiment

Aim To evaluate whether seedlings of sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) can establish beyond the species northern range limit in adjacent boreal forest. Location The hardwood–boreal forest transition zone on the north‐east shore of Lake Superior, Ontario, Canada. Methods Seed fall of sugar maple was monitored for 5 years in a stand of this species at its northern range limit, and seed from this stand was transplanted to five micro‐habitat types in an adjacent boreal forest. The establishment and survival of sugar maple seedlings there, and in the seed‐source stand, was monitored for the following 7–11 years. Soil‐surface light levels were measured in both forest types. Results Most seed fell in the final year of monitoring, when c. 250 seeds m^?2 were recorded. First‐year seedling establishment rates in the maple stand, deriving from this mast seed year, was approximately double that deriving from seed transplanted to the boreal forest sites; this is tentatively attributed to seed predator satiation in the maple stand. However, subsequent seedling survivorship in the boreal forest was greater than that in the maple stand, resulting in comparable seedling densities by the end of 6 years. This difference is tentatively attributed to better illumination in the boreal forest sites, and canopy‐opening disturbances appear to be especially facilitative of seedling survival. Main conclusions There is no fundamental impediment to sugar maple seedlings establishing in boreal forest communities if climate warming occurs and seed is available. If management intervention is needed to accelerate seed availability in a rapidly warming boreal forest, then diffuse seed application to disturbed boreal forest sites during mast years of local boreal tree species is recommended as the most effective way of avoiding seed predation and increasing seedling survival.     

Retraction Note: Anatomical adjustment of mature leaves of sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) to increased irradiance

Photosynthesis Research -     

Morphological and biomass characteristic acclimation of trident maple (Acer buergerianum Miq.) in response to light and water stress

Acer buergerianum Miq. (Trident maple) is a native species of China with a large distribution, but exist in small population. Water and light are two important factors limiting plant growth and are crucial in the framework of forest regeneration. However, there is no consensus on how shade interacts with drought. Four hypotheses in the recent literature variously predict that shade will have a stronger, weaker or equal impact on seedlings under drought stress. This study investigated the interactive responses of A. buergerianum to light and water focusing on seedling growth, leaf morphology and biomass partitioning by performing a growth experiment in pots with different water supply regimes [15, 35, 55, 75, 95 % of field capacity (FC)] combined with two light regimes (10 and 66 % of full sunlight). After 123 days treatment, the results showed that shade greatly reduced growth and biomass, in contrast enhancing the amount of chlorophyll, the amount of water in the leaves, and the specific leaf area. Drought reduced growth, biomass, and the bulk of the leaves. Most leaf traits and biomass characteristics had strong interactions in their responses to light and water treatments. Allometric analysis revealed that water and light had no effects on root to shoot ratios, main root to lateral root ratios, and root mass ratios. Shade alleviated the negative impact of drought. A. buergerianum successfully adapted to the various light and water conditions. We recommend a water supply above 15 % FC to keep the seedlings vigorous, under both sunlight conditions.     

Genetic variation and spatial structure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and implications for predicted global-scale environmental change

Current ecosystem model predictions concerning the effects of global temperature increase on forest responses do not account for factors influencing long‐term evolutionary dynamics of natural populations. Population structure and genetic variability may represent important factors in a species' ability to adapt to global‐scale environmental change without experiencing major alterations in current range limits. Genetic variation and structure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) were examined across three regions, between two stands within regions, and among four to five open‐pollinated families within stands (total N = 547 genotypes) using 58 randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Differences within open‐pollinated families account for the largest portion of the total variation (29%), while differences among regions represent less than 2% of the total variation. Genetic diversity, as indicated by estimates of percent polymorphic loci, expected heterozygosity, fixation coefficients, and genetic distance, is greatest in the southern region, which consists of populations with the maximum potential risk due to climate change effects. The high level of genetic similarity (greater than 90%) among some genotypes suggests that gene flow is occurring among regions, stands, and families. High levels of genetic variation among families indicate that vegetational models designed to predict species' response to global‐scale environmental change may need to consider the degree and hierarchical structure of genetic variation when making large‐scale inferences.     

Branch growth and leaf numbers of red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and red oak (Quercus rubra L.): response to defoliation

Summary Branch growth and leaf formation from terminal and from lateral buds of red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and red oak (Quercus rubra L.) were measured in response to simulated insect defoliation. A single large branch representative of the crown of each tree was used for enumeration of growth and of bud numbers throughout three successive years of 0, 50, 75, and 100% leaf removal for the entire tree. Leaf number per tree for both species after the last year of defoliation was reduced in direct proportion to the severity of defoliation, in comparison to the predefoliation status of the trees. Bud number per tree for red maple, but not for red oak, was also reduced in proportion to severity of defoliation.Averaged over all defoliation treatments, defoliation reduced branch growth more than leaf production. Furthermore, the reduction in branch growth and leaf production was greater in red oak than in red maple. Three years of successive defoliation reduced the mean lateral plus terminal branch growth by 40% in red oak and by 23% in red maple, while leaf number was reduced 22% in red oak and remained unchanged in red maple. In red maple, 100% defoliation caused greater branch death than the 50 or 75% defoliation treatments, and the amount of death was greater after each successive year of defoliation. In contrast to red maple, undefoliated red oak incurred a substantial amount of branch death throughout the study which was little affected by defoliation treatment.     

Diurnal variation in xylem hydraulic conductivity in white ash (Fraxinus americana L.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.)

Xylem hydraulic conductivity and percentage loss of conductivity (PLC) were measured on a ring-porous ( Fraxinus americana L., white ash), a diffuse porous ( Acer rubrum L., red maple) and a coniferous ( Picea rubens Sarg., red spruce) tree species in a temperate deciduous forest in central Massachusetts, USA. Measurements were made on current and 1-year-old branch segments in the afternoon and on the following morning. Afternoon PLC was 45 to 70% for the current year's extension growth in both white ash and red maple. Morning PLC was significantly lower (10–40%). Conductivity also varied diurnally suggesting, on average, a 50% recovery from cavitation overnight. Red spruce showed lower PLC and conductivity and a less pronounced night-time recovery. Diurnal variation in hydraulic conductivity and PLC suggests that embolism removal occurred in all three species despite the existence of tension within the xylem. Further evidence for embolism removal was observed with an in situ double-staining experiment in which dyes were fed to a transpiring branch during the late afternoon and the following morning. Examination of stem cross-sections showed that a larger number of vessels were conductive in the morning than on the preceding afternoon. Results of this study suggest that hydraulic capacity is highly dynamic and that conductivity measurements reflect a balance between two processes: cavitation and embolism removal.     

Dynamic changes in petiole specific conductivity in red maple (Acer rubrum L.), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) and northern fox grape (Vitis labrusca L.)

Diurnal variation in petiole specific hydraulic conductivity and simultaneous measurements of leaf water potential were recorded in red maple, tulip tree and fox grape. Petiole specific conductivity was determined from in situ measurements of water flow into the distal (leaf‐bearing) end of an attached petiole as a function of applied hydrostatic pressure and petiole dimensions. The hydraulic properties of the petiole dominated the measurements, indicating that this technique can be used for rapid estimates of petiole hydraulic conductivity. There was a significant decrease in petiole specific conductivity associated with increasingly more negative leaf water potentials in maple and tulip tree, but not in grape. Petiole specific conductivity increased during the afternoon while the plant was actively transpiring and the xylem sap was under tension. The recovery of petiole conductivity during the afternoon suggests that hydraulic conductivity reflects a dynamic balance between a loss of hydraulic conductivity with increasing water stress, and its restoration as tension within the xylem decreases. Three experimental manipulations were applied to red maple and tulip tree to examine the sensitivity of diurnal changes in petiole conductivity to various physiological perturbations. Both phloem girdling and application of HgCl₂ to the transpiration stream resulted in a marked decrease in the degree to which petiole specific conductivity recovered as xylem tension relaxed during the afternoon. Delivery of a surfactant to the xylem, however, did not significantly alter the relation between leaf water potential and petiole hydraulic conductivity.