The effect of the rpoSam allele on gene expression and stress resistance in Escherichia coli

The RNA polymerase associated with RpoS transcribes many genes related to stationary phase and stress survival in Escherichia coli. The DNA sequence of rpoS exhibits a high degree of polymorphism. A C to T transition at position 99 of the rpoS ORF, which results in a premature amber stop codon often found in E. coli strains. The rpoSam mutant expresses a truncated and partially functional RpoS protein. Here, we present new evidence regarding rpoS polymorphism in common laboratory E. coli strains. One out of the six tested strains carries the rpoSam allele, but expressed a full-length RpoS protein owing to the presence of an amber supressor mutation. The rpoSam allele was transferred to a non-suppressor background and tested for RpoS level, stress resistance and for the expression of RpoS and sigma70-dependent genes. Overall, the rpoSam strain displayed an intermediate phenotype regarding stress resistance and the expression of σ^S-dependent genes when compared to the wild-type rpoS ⁺ strain and to the rpoS null mutant. Surprisingly, overexpression of rpoSam had a differential effect on the expression of the σ⁷⁰-dependent genes phoA and lacZ that, respectively, encode the enzymes alkaline phosphatase and β-galactosidase. The former was enhanced while the latter was inhibited by high levels of RpoSam.     

Low-Shear Modeled Microgravity Alters the Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Stress Response in an RpoS-Independent Manner

We have previously demonstrated that low-shear modeled microgravity (low-shear MMG) serves to enhance the virulence of a bacterial pathogen, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The Salmonella response to low-shear MMG involves a signaling pathway that we have termed the low-shear MMG stimulon, though the identities of the low-shear MMG stimulon genes and regulatory factors are not known. RpoS is the primary sigma factor required for the expression of genes that are induced upon exposure to different environmental-stress signals and is essential for virulence in mice. Since low-shear MMG induces a Salmonella acid stress response and enhances Salmonella virulence, we reasoned that RpoS would be a likely regulator of the Salmonella low-shear MMG response. Our results demonstrate that low-shear MMG provides cross-resistance to several environmental stresses in both wild-type and isogenic rpoS mutant strains. Growth under low-shear MMG decreased the generation time of both strains in minimal medium and increased the ability of both strains to survive in J774 macrophages. Using DNA microarray analysis, we found no evidence of induction of the RpoS regulon by low-shear MMG but did find that other genes were altered in expression under these conditions in both the wild-type and rpoS mutant strains. Our results indicate that, under the conditions of these studies, RpoS is not required for transmission of the signal that induces the low-shear MMG stimulon. Moreover, our studies also indicate that low-shear MMG can be added to a short list of growth conditions that can serve to preadapt an rpoS mutant for resistance to multiple environmental stresses.     

Engineering Synthetic Multistress Tolerance in Escherichia coli by Using a Deinococcal Response Regulator,DR1558

Cellular robustness is an important trait for industrial microbes, because the microbial strains are exposed to a multitude of different stresses during industrial processes, such as fermentation. Thus, engineering robustness in an organism in order to push the strains toward maximizing yield has become a significant topic of research. We introduced the deinococcal response regulator DR1558 into Escherichia coli (strain Ec-1558), thereby conferring tolerance to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in strain Ec-1558 was reduced due to the increased KatE catalase activity. Among four regulators of the oxidative-stress response, OxyR, RpoS, SoxS, and Fur, we found that the expression of rpoS increased in Ec-1558, and we confirmed this increase by Western blot analysis. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that DR1558 bound to the rpoS promoter. Because the alternative sigma factor RpoS regulates various stress resistance-related genes, we performed stress survival analysis using an rpoS mutant strain. Ec-1558 was able to tolerate a low pH, a high temperature, and high NaCl concentrations in addition to H₂O₂, and the multistress tolerance phenotype disappeared in the absence of rpoS. Microarray analysis clearly showed that a variety of stress-responsive genes that are directly or indirectly controlled by RpoS were upregulated in strain Ec-1558. These findings, taken together, indicate that the multistress tolerance conferred by DR1558 is likely routed through RpoS. In the present study, we propose a novel strategy of employing an exogenous response regulator from polyextremophiles for strain improvement.     

Role of rpoS in Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain H32 Biofilm Development and Survival

The protein RpoS is responsible for mediating cell survival during the stationary phase by conferring cell resistance to various stressors and has been linked to biofilm formation. In this study, the role of the rpoS gene in Escherichia coli O157:H7 biofilm formation and survival in water was investigated. Confocal scanning laser microscopy of biofilms established on coverslips revealed a nutrient-dependent role of rpoS in biofilm formation, where the biofilm biomass volume of the rpoS mutant was 2.4- to 7.5-fold the size of its rpoS⁺ wild-type counterpart in minimal growth medium. The enhanced biofilm formation of the rpoS mutant did not, however, translate to increased survival in sterile double-distilled water (ddH₂O), filter-sterilized lake water, or unfiltered lake water. The rpoS mutant had an overall reduction of 3.10 and 5.30 log₁₀ in sterile ddH₂O and filter-sterilized lake water, respectively, while only minor reductions of 0.53 and 0.61 log₁₀ in viable counts were observed for the wild-type form in the two media over a 13-day period, respectively. However, the survival rates of the detached biofilm-derived rpoS⁺ and rpoS mutant cells were comparable. Under the competitive stress conditions of unfiltered lake water, the advantage conferred by the presence of rpoS was lost, and both the wild-type and knockout forms displayed similar declines in viable counts. These results suggest that rpoS does have an influence on both biofilm formation and survival of E. coli O157:H7 and that the advantage conferred by rpoS is contingent on the environmental conditions.     

Role of RpoS in stress survival,synthesis of extracellular autoinducer 2, and virulence in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vibrio alginolyticus</Emphasis>

Vibrio alginolyticus, a marine bacterium, is an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing vibriosis with high mortality to fishes in the South China Sea. Stress resistance is very important for its survival in the natural environment and upon infection of the host. RpoS, an alternative sigma factor, is considered as an important regulator involved in stress response and virulence in many pathogens. In this study, the rpoS gene was cloned and characterized to evaluate the role of RpoS in V. alginolyticus. The predicted protein showed high identity with other reported rpoS gene products. The in-frame deleted mutation of rpoS in V. alginolyticus led to sensitivity of the strain to ethanol, hyperosmolarity, heat, and hydrogen peroxide challenges. Further studies showed that extracellular autoinducer 2 level, four of seven detected protease activities, and cytotoxicity of extracellular products were markedly decreased in the rpoS mutant compared with that in the wild-type strain. The results indicated that the global regulator RpoS was part of the regulatory networks of virulence and LuxS quorum sensing system.     

Characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Edwardsiella tarda rpoS</Emphasis>: effect on serum resistance,chondroitinase activity,biofilm formation,and autoinducer synthetases expression

In this study, rpoS gene was identified from Edwardsiella tarda EIB202 and its functional role was analyzed by using an in-frame deletion mutant ∆rpoS and the complemental strain rpoS ⁺. Compared with the wild type and rpoS ⁺, ∆rpoS was impaired in terms of the ability to survive under oxidative stress and nutrient starvation, as well as the resistance to 50% serum of Scophthalmus maximus in 3 h, demonstrating essential roles of RpoS in stress adaptation. The rpoS mutant also displayed markedly increased chondroitinase activity and biofilm formation. Real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed that the expression level of quorum sensing autoinducer synthetase genes luxS and edwI was increased by 3.7- and 2.5-fold in the rpoS mutant strain. Those results suggested that rpoS might be involved in the negative or positive regulation of chondroitinase and biofilm formation, or quorum sensing networks in E. tarda, respectively. Although there were no obvious differences between the wild-type and the rpoS mutant in adherence of epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cell and in the lethality on fish model, rpoS deletion leads to the drastically reduced capacity for E. tarda to internalize in EPC cells, indicating that RpoS was, while not the main, the factor required for the virulence network of E. tarda.     

Role of RpoS in stress resistance,biofilm formation and quorum sensing of Shewanella baltica

Shewanella baltica is one of the most important bacterial species contributing to spoilage of seafood. Principally, RpoS has been recognized as the central regulator of stress resistance in many bacterial species. However, little is known about the role of RpoS in S. baltica. In this study, an rpoS mutant of S. baltica was constructed and analysed for its functions. The results showed that the survival rate of rpoS mutant decreased when treated with heat, ethanol and H₂O_2, while increased the resistance to NaCl. Moreover RpoS promoted the biofilm formation of S. baltica at 30°C, while declined at 4°C. Interestingly, the rpoS-deficient mutant showed increased swimming motility. Furthermore, the results revealed that the production of quorum-sensing (QS) signals such as cyclo-(l -Pro-l -Leu) and cyclo-(l -Pro-l -Phe) reduced in rpoS mutant. Mainly, rpoS positively regulated QS response regulators, as the expression of all luxR genes in rpoS mutant significantly decreased relative to wild type. This study reveals that RpoS is a major regulator involved in stress responses, biofilm formation and quorum sensing system in S. baltica. The present work provides significant information for the control of microbiological spoilage of seafood.     

RpoS-Dependent Stress Response and Exoenzyme Production in Vibrio vulnificus

Vibrio vulnificus is an estuarine bacterium capable of causing rapidly fatal infections through both ingestion and wound infection. Like other opportunistic pathogens, V. vulnificus must adapt to potentially stressful environmental changes while living freely in seawater, upon colonization of the oyster gut, and upon infection of such diverse hosts as humans and eels. In order to begin to understand the ability of V. vulnificus to respond to such stresses, we examined the role of the alternate sigma factor RpoS, which is important in stress response and virulence in many pathogens. An rpoS mutant of V. vulnificus strain C7184o was constructed by homologous recombination. The mutant strain exhibited a decreased ability to survive diverse environmental stresses, including exposure to hydrogen peroxide, hyperosmolarity, and acidic conditions. The most striking difference was a high sensitivity of the mutant to hydrogen peroxide. Albuminase, caseinase, and elastase activity were detected in the wild type but not in the mutant strain, and an additional two hydrolytic activities (collagenase and gelatinase) were reduced in the mutant strain compared to the wild type. Additionally, the motility of the rpoS mutant was severely diminished. Overall, these studies suggest that rpoS in V. vulnificus is important for adaptation to environmental changes and may have a role in virulence.     

The variant rpoS allele of S. enteritidis strain 27655R does not affect virulence in a chick model nor constitutive curliation but does generate a cold-sensitive phenotype

Adherence of pathogenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. to host cells is in part mediated by curli fimbriae which, along with other virulence determinants, are positively regulated by RpoS. Interested in the role and regulation of curli (SEF17) fimbriae of Salmonella enteritidis in poultry infection, we tested the virulence of naturally occurring S. enteritidis PT4 strains 27655R and 27655S which displayed constitutive and null expression of curli (SEF17) fimbriae, respectively, in a chick invasion assay and analysed their rpoS alleles. Both strains were shown to be equally invasive and as invasive as a wild-type phage type 4 strain and an isogenic derivative defective for the elaboration of curli. We showed that the rpoS allele of 27655S was intact even though this strain was non-curliated and we confirmed that a S. enteritidis rpoS::str^r null mutant was unable to express curli, as anticipated. Strain 27655R, constitutively curliated, possessed a frameshift mutation at position 697 of the rpoS coding sequence which resulted in a truncated product and remained curliated even when transduced to rpoS::str^r. Additionally, rpoS mutants are known to be cold-sensitive, a phenotype confirmed for strain 27655R. Collectively, these data indicated that curliation was not a significant factor for pathogenesis of S. enteritidis in this model and that curliation of strains 27655R and 27655S was independent of RpoS. Significantly, strain 27655R possessed a defective rpoS allele and remained virulent. Here was evidence that supported the concept that different naturally occurring rpoS alleles may generate varying virulence phenotypic traits.     

Autoinduction of RpoS Biosynthesis in the Biocontrol Strain <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas</Emphasis> sp. M18

The rpoS gene from Pseudomonas sp. M18, which encodes predicted protein (an alternative sigma factor s, σ^S, or σ³⁸) with 99.5% sequence identity with RpoS from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, was first cloned. In order to investigate the mechanism of rpoS expression, an rpoS null mutant, named M18S, was constructed with insertion of aacC1 cassette bearing a gentamycin resistance gene. With introduction of a plasmid containing an rpoS′–′lacZ translational fusion (pMERS) to wild-type strain M18 or M18S, it was first found that β-galactosidase activity expressed in strain M18S (pMERS) decreased to fourfold of that expressed in the strain M18 (pMERS). When strain M18S (pMERS) was introduced with another plasmid pBBS containing the wild-type rpoS gene, its β-galactosidase expression level was enhanced and almost restored to that in strain M18 (pMERS). Similarly, expression of β-galactosidase from a chromosomal fusion of the promoter of the wild-type rpoS gene with lacZ (rpoS–lacZ) was enhanced fivefold in the presence of a plasmid with the wild-type rpoS gene. With these findings, it is suggested that RpoS sigma factor may be involved in autoinducing its own gene expression in Pseudomonas sp. M18.     

Role of rpoS in Acid Resistance and Fecal Shedding of Escherichia coli O157:H7

Acid resistance (AR) is important to survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in acidic foods and may play a role during passage through the bovine host. In this study, we examined the role in AR of the rpoS-encoded global stress response regulator ς^S and its effect on shedding of E. coli O157:H7 in mice and calves. When assayed for each of the three AR systems identified in E. coli, an rpoS mutant (rpoS::pRR10) of E. coli O157:H7 lacked the glucose-repressed system and possessed reduced levels of both the arginine- and glutamate-dependent AR systems. After administration of the rpoS mutant and the wild-type strain (ATCC 43895) to ICR mice at doses ranging from 10¹ to 10⁴ CFU, we found the wild-type strain in feces of mice given lower doses (10² versus 10³ CFU) and at a greater frequency (80% versus 13%) than the mutant strain. The reduction in passage of the rpoS mutant was due to decreased AR, as administration of the mutant in 0.05 M phosphate buffer facilitated passage and increased the frequency of recovery in feces from 27 to 67% at a dose of 10⁴ CFU. Enumeration of E. coli O157:H7 in feces from calves inoculated with an equal mixture of the wild-type strain and the rpoS mutant demonstrated shedding of the mutant to be 10- to 100-fold lower than wild-type numbers. This difference in shedding between the wild-type strain and the rpoS mutant was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). Thus, ς^S appears to play a role in E. coli O157:H7 passage in mice and shedding from calves, possibly by inducing expression of the glucose-repressed RpoS-dependent AR determinant and thus increasing resistance to gastrointestinal stress. These findings may provide clues for future efforts aimed at reducing or eliminating this pathogen from cattle herds.     

Polyamines Stimulate the Level of the σ38 Subunit (RpoS) of Escherichia coli RNA Polymerase,Resulting in the Induction of the Glutamate Decarboxylase-dependent Acid Response System via the gadE Regulon

To study the physiological roles of polyamines, we carried out a global microarray analysis on the effect of adding polyamines to an Escherichia coli mutant that lacks polyamines because of deletions in the genes in the polyamine biosynthetic pathway. Previously, we have reported that the earliest response to polyamine addition is the increased expression of the genes for the glutamate-dependent acid resistance system (GDAR). We also presented preliminary evidence for the involvement of rpoS and gadE regulators. In the current study, further confirmation of the regulatory roles of rpoS and gadE is shown by a comparison of genome-wide expression profiling data from a series of microarrays comparing the genes induced by polyamine addition to polyamine-free rpoS⁺/gadE⁺ cells with genes induced by polyamine addition to polyamine-free ΔrpoS/gadE⁺ and rpoS⁺/ΔgadE cells. The results indicate that most of the genes in the E. coli GDAR system that are induced by polyamines require rpoS and gadE. Our data also show that gadE is the main regulator of GDAR and other acid fitness island genes. Both polyamines and rpoS are necessary for the expression of gadE gene from the three promoters of gadE (P1, P2, and P3). The most important effect of polyamine addition is the very rapid increase in the level of RpoS sigma factor. Our current hypothesis is that polyamines increase the level of RpoS protein and that this increased RpoS level is responsible for the stimulation of gadE expression, which in turn induces the GDAR system in E. coli.     

Identification of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Genes Important for Survival in the Swine Gastric Environment

Since the stomach is a first line of defense for the host against ingested microorganisms, an ex vivo swine stomach contents (SSC) assay was developed to search for genes important for Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium survival in the hostile gastric environment. Initial characterization of the SSC assay (pH 3.87) using previously identified, acid-sensitive serovar Typhimurium mutants revealed a 10-fold decrease in survival for a phoP mutant following 20 min of challenge and no survival for mutants of rpoS or fur. To identify additional genes, a signature-tagged mutagenesis bank was constructed and screened in the SSC assay. Nineteen mutants were identified and individually analyzed in the SSC and acid tolerance response assays; 13 mutants exhibited a 10-fold or greater sensitivity in the SSC assay compared to the wild-type strain, but only 3 mutants displayed a 10-fold or greater decrease in survival following pH 3.0 acidic challenge. Further examination determined that the lethal effects of the SSC are pH dependent but that low pH is not the sole killing mechanism(s). Gas chromatography analysis of the SSC revealed lactic acid levels of 126 mM. Upon investigating the effects of lactic acid on serovar Typhimurium survival in a synthetic gastric fluid, not only was a concentration- and time-dependent lethal effect observed, but the phoP, rpoS, fur, and pnp genes were identified as involved in protection against lactic acid exposure. These studies indicate a role in gastric survival for several serovar Typhimurium genes and imply that the stomach environment is defined by more than low pH.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">rpoS</Emphasis> Gene Expression in Carbon-Starved Cultures of the Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Accumulating Species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas oleovorans</Emphasis>

The expression of the rpoS gene during PHA depolymerization was monitored in Pseudomonas oleovorans GPo1 and its mutant defective in PHA degradation by analyzing the tolerance to oxidative and thermal stresses and the RpoS intracellular content. An increase in the tolerance to H₂O₂ and heat shock was observed coincidentally with PHA degradation. Western blotting experiments performed in carbon-starved cultures showed that the RpoS levels were higher in the wild type than in the mutant strain. Complementation of the phaZ mutation restores the wild-type RpoS levels. These results suggest a probable association between PHA depolymerization and the stress tolerance phenotype controlled by RpoS.