Regulation of Fc?RI Signaling in Mast Cells by G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 2 and Its RH Domain

Agonist-induced phosphorylation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by GPCR kinases (GRKs) promotes their desensitization and internalization. Here, we sought to determine the role of GRK2 on FcϵRI signaling and mediator release in mast cells. The strategies utilized included lentiviral shRNA-mediated GRK2 knockdown, GRK2 gene deletion (GRK2^flox/flox/cre recombinase) and overexpression of GRK2 and its regulator of G protein signaling homology (RH) domain (GRK2-RH). We found that silencing GRK2 expression caused ∼50% decrease in antigen-induced Ca²⁺ mobilization and degranulation but resulted in ablation of cytokine (IL-6 and IL-13) generation. The effect of GRK2 on cytokine generation does not require its catalytic activity but is mediated via the phosphorylation of p38 and Akt. Overexpression of GRK2 or its RH domain (GRK2-RH) enhanced antigen-induced mast cell degranulation and cytokine generation without affecting the expression levels of any of the FcϵRI subunits (α, β, and γ). GRK2 or GRK2-RH had no effect on antigen-induced phosphorylation of FcϵRIγ or Src but enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk. These data demonstrate that GRK2 modulates FcϵRI signaling in mast cells via at least two mechanisms. One involves GRK2-RH and modulates tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk, and the other is mediated via the phosphorylation of p38 and Akt.     

Induction of Cardiac Fibrosis by β-Blocker in G Protein-independent and G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 5/β-Arrestin2-dependent Signaling Pathways

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) have long been known as receptors that activate G protein-dependent cellular signaling pathways. In addition to the G protein-dependent pathways, recent reports have revealed that several ligands called “biased ligands” elicit G protein-independent and β-arrestin-dependent signaling through GPCRs (biased agonism). Several β-blockers are known as biased ligands. All β-blockers inhibit the binding of agonists to the β-adrenergic receptors. In addition to β-blocking action, some β-blockers are reported to induce cellular responses through G protein-independent and β-arrestin-dependent signaling pathways. However, the physiological significance induced by the β-arrestin-dependent pathway remains much to be clarified in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that metoprolol, a β₁-adrenergic receptor-selective blocker, could induce cardiac fibrosis through a G protein-independent and β-arrestin2-dependent pathway. Metoprolol, a β-blocker, increased the expression of fibrotic genes responsible for cardiac fibrosis in cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, metoprolol induced the interaction between β₁-adrenergic receptor and β-arrestin2, but not β-arrestin1. The interaction between β₁-adrenergic receptor and β-arrestin2 by metoprolol was impaired in the G protein-coupled receptor kinase 5 (GRK5)-knockdown cells. Metoprolol-induced cardiac fibrosis led to cardiac dysfunction. However, the metoprolol-induced fibrosis and cardiac dysfunction were not evoked in β-arrestin2- or GRK5-knock-out mice. Thus, metoprolol is a biased ligand that selectively activates a G protein-independent and GRK5/β-arrestin2-dependent pathway, and induces cardiac fibrosis. This study demonstrates the physiological importance of biased agonism, and suggests that G protein-independent and β-arrestin-dependent signaling is a reason for the diversity of the effectiveness of β-blockers.     

Role of PGF2α in luteolysis based on inhibition of PGF2α synthesis in the mare

The effects of inhibition of PGF2α synthesis on luteolysis in mares and on the incidence of prolonged luteal activity were studied in controls and in a group treated with flunixin meglumine (FM), a PGF2α inhibitor (n = 6/group). The FM was given every 8 hours (1.0 mg/kg) on each of Days 14.0 to 16.7. Concentration (pg/mL) of PGF2α metabolite averaged over 8 hours of hourly blood sampling at the beginning of each day, was lower in the FM group than in the controls on Day 14 after ovulation (6.7 ± 1.3 vs. 13.8 ± 2.9, P < 0.05), Day 15 (15.0 ± 3.9 vs. 35.2 ± 10.4, P < 0.10), and Day 16 (21.9 ± 5.7 vs. 54.7 ± 11.4, P < 0.03). Concentration (ng/mL) of progesterone (P4) was greater in the FM group than in the controls on Day 14 (10.1 ± 0.9 vs. 7.7 ± 0.9, P < 0.08), Day 15 (9.2 ± 1.0 vs. 4.3 ± 1.0, P < 0.008), and Day 16 (5.6 ± 1.6 vs. 1.2 ± 0.4, P < 0.02). The interval from ovulation to the beginning of a decrease in P4 and to the end of luteolysis (P4 < 1 ng/mL) was each delayed (P < 0.03) by ∼1 day in the FM group. Intervals involving the luteal phase were long (statistical outliers, P < 0.05) in two mares in the FM group, indicating prolonged luteal activity. Results supported the hypotheses that (1) inhibition of PGF2α synthesis interferes with luteolysis in mares and (2) inhibition of PGF2α at the expected time of luteolysis may lead to prolonged luteal activity.     

TNF-α as an Autocrine Mediator and its Role in the Activation of Schwann Cells

In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) derived from activated Schwann cells (SCs) play a critical role as a pleiotropic mediator. In this study, we examined the function of TNF-α as an inflammatory mediator in SCs activation. TNF-α exhibits its biological effect through two distinct surface receptors, TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNFR2. We show here that cultured SCs express both TNFR1 and TNFR2, and that activation of these receptors by TNF-α promotes expression of TNF-α. Meanwhile, TNF-α also increased the production of other inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, TNF-α is involved in the induction of apoptosis through binding to TNFR in SCs. The activation of SCs by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is partially mediated by SCs-derived TNF-α. These findings suggest the existence of a positive feedback loop in the activation of SC via TNF-α. This loop may be involved in the prolonged activation of SCs. Acute or chronic stimulation of TNF-α by SC at sites of PNS inflammation may be critical in determining whether TNF-α has activational, inflammatory, or cytotoxic effects on these cells. Yongwei Qin and Chun Cheng contributed equally to this work.     

Activation of the RhoB Signaling Pathway by Thyroid Hormone Receptor β in Thyroid Cancer Cells

Thyroid hormone receptor (TR) mediates the crucial effects of the thyroid hormone (T3) on cellular growth, development, and differentiation. Decreased expression or inactivating somatic mutations of TRs have been found in human cancers of the liver, breast, lung, and thyroid. The mechanisms of TR-associated carcinogenesis are still not clear. To establish the function of TRβ in thyroid cancer cell proliferation, we constructed a recombinant adenovirus vector, AdTRβ, which expresses human TRβ1 cDNA. Thyroid cancer cell lines in which TRβ protein levels were significantly decreased as compared to intact thyroid tissues were infected with AdTRβ and the function of TRβ on cell proliferation and migration was analyzed. Ligand-bound TRβ induced HDAC1 and HDAC3 dissociation from, and histone acetylation associated with the RhoB promoter and enhanced the expression of RhoB mRNA and protein. In AdTRβ-infected cells, T3 and farnesyl transferase inhibitor (FTI)-treatment induced the distribution of RhoB on the cell membrane and enhanced the abundance of active GTP-bound RhoB. This RhoB protein led to p21-associated cell-cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase, following inhibition of cell proliferation and invasion. Conversely, lowering cellular RhoB by small interfering RNA knockdown in AdTRβ-infected cells led to downregulation of p21 and inhibited cell-cycle arrest. The growth of BHP18-21v tumor xenografts in vivo was significantly inhibited by AdTRβ injection with FTIs-treatment, as compared to control virus-injected tumors. This novel signaling pathway triggered by ligand-bound TRβ provides insight into possible mechanisms of proliferation and invasion of thyroid cancer and may provide new therapeutic targets for thyroid cancers.     

Pivotal Role of the α2A-Adrenoceptor in Producing Inflammation and Organ Injury in a Rat Model of Sepsis

Background

Norepinephrine (NE) modulates the responsiveness of macrophages to proinflammatory stimuli through the activation of adrenergic receptors (ARs). Being part of the stress response, early increases of NE in sepsis sustain adverse systemic inflammatory responses. The intestine is an important source of NE release in the early stage of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis in rats, which then stimulates TNF-α production in Kupffer cells (KCs) through the activation of the α₂-AR. It is important to know which of the three α₂-AR subtypes (i.e., α_2A, α_2B or α_2C) is responsible for the upregulation of TNF-α production. The aim of this study was to determine the contribution of α_2A-AR in this process.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Adult male rats underwent CLP and KCs were isolated 2 h later. Gene expression of α_2A-AR was determined. In additional experiments, cultured KCs were incubated with NE with or without BRL-44408 maleate, a specific α_2A-AR antagonist, and intraportal infusion of NE for 2 h with or without BRL-44408 maleate was carried out in normal animals. Finally, the impact of α_2A-AR activation by NE was investigated under inflammatory conditions (i.e., endotoxemia and CLP). Gene expression of the α_2A-AR subtype was significantly upregulated after CLP. NE increased the release of TNF-α in cultured KCs, which was specifically inhibited by the α_2A-AR antagonist BRL-44408. Equally, intraportal NE infusion increased TNF-α gene expression in KCs and plasma TNF-α which was also abrogated by co-administration of BRL-44408. NE also potentiated LPS-induced TNF-α release via the α_2A-AR in vitro and in vivo. This potentiation of TNF-α release by NE was mediated through the α_2A-AR coupled Gαi protein and the activation of the p38 MAP kinase. Treatment of septic animals with BRL-44408 suppressed TNF-α, prevented multiple organ injury and significantly improved survival from 45% to 75%.

Conclusions/Significance

Our novel finding is that hyperresponsiveness to α₂-AR stimulation observed in sepsis is primarily due to an increase in α_2A-AR expression in KCs. This appears to be in part responsible for the increased proinflammatory response and ensuing organ injury in sepsis. These findings provide important feasibility information for further developing the α_2A-AR antagonist as a new therapy for sepsis.     

Activation of the B Cell Receptor Leads to Increased Membrane Proximity of the Igα Cytoplasmic Domain

Binding of antigen to the B cell receptor (BCR) induces conformational changes in BCR''s cytoplasmic domains that are concomitant with phosphorylation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs). Recently, reversible folding of the CD3ε and ξ chain ITAMs into the plasma membrane has been suggested to regulate T cell receptor signaling. Here we show that the Igα and Igβ cytoplasmic domains of the BCR do not associate with plasma membrane in resting B cells. However, antigen binding and ITAM phosphorylation specifically increased membrane proximity of Igα, but not Igβ. Thus, BCR activation is accompanied by asymmetric conformational changes, possibly promoting the binding of Igα and Igβ to differently localized signaling complexes.     

Regulating Prefrontal Cortex Activation: An Emerging Role for the 5-HT2A Serotonin Receptor in the Modulation of Emotion-Based Actions?

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in mediating important higher-order cognitive processes such as decision making, prompting thereby our actions. At the same time, PFC activation is strongly influenced by emotional reactions through its functional interaction with the amygdala and the striatal circuitry, areas involved in emotion and reward processing. The PFC, however, is able to modulate amygdala reactivity via a feedback loop to this area. A role for serotonin in adjusting for this circuitry of cognitive regulation of emotion has long been suggested based primarily on the positive pharmacological effect of elevating serotonin levels in anxiety regulation. Recent animal and human functional magnetic resonance studies have pointed to a specific involvement of the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)_2A serotonin receptor in the PFC feedback regulatory projection onto the amygdala. This receptor is highly expressed in the prefrontal cortex areas, playing an important role in modulating cortical activity and neural oscillations (brain waves). This makes it an interesting potential pharmacological target for the treatment of neuropsychiatric modes characterized by lack of inhibitory control of emotion-based actions, such as addiction and other impulse-related behaviors. In this review, we give an overview of the 5-HT_2A receptor distribution (neuronal, intracellular, and anatomical) along with its functional and physiological effect on PFC activation, and how that relates to more recent findings of a regulatory effect of the PFC on the emotional control of our actions.     

Do Caveolae Have a Role in the Fidelity and Dynamics of Receptor Activation of G-protein-gated Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channels?

In atrial and nodal cardiac myocytes, M2 muscarinic receptors activate inhibitory G-proteins (G_i/o), which in turn stimulate G-protein-gated inwardly rectifying K⁺ channels through direct binding of the Gβγ subunit. Despite also releasing Gβγ, G_s-coupled receptors such as the β-adrenergic receptor are not able to prominently activate this current. An appealing hypothesis would be if components were sequestered in membrane domains such as caveolae/rafts. Using biochemical fractionation followed by Western blotting and/or radioligand binding experiments, we examined the distribution of the components in stable HEK293 and HL-1 cells, which natively express the transduction cascade. The channel, M2 muscarinic, and A1 adenosine receptors were located in noncaveolar/nonraft fractions. G_iα_1/2 was enriched in both caveolar/raft and noncaveolar/nonraft fractions. In contrast, G_sα was only enriched in caveolar/raft fractions. We constructed YFP-tagged caveolin-2 (YFP-Cav2) and chimeras with the M2 (M2-YFP-Cav2) and A1 (A1-YFP-Cav2) receptors. Analysis of gradient fractions showed that these receptor chimeras were now localized to caveolae-enriched fractions. Microscopy showed that M2-YFP and A1-YFP had a diffuse homogenous membrane signal. YFP-Cav2, M2-YFP-Cav2, and A1-YFP-Cav2 revealed a more punctuate pattern. Finally, we looked at the consequences for signaling. Activation via M2-YFP-Cav2 or A1-YFP-Cav2 revealed substantially slower kinetics compared with M2-YFP or A1-YFP and was reversed by the addition of methyl-β-cyclodextrin. Thus the localization of the channel signal transduction cascade in non-cholesterol rich domains substantially enhances the speed of signaling. The presence of G_sα solely in caveolae may account for signaling selectivity between G_i/o and G_s-coupled receptors.     

Na/H Exchanger Regulatory Factors Control Parathyroid Hormone Receptor Signaling by Facilitating Differential Activation of Gα Protein Subunits

The Na/H exchanger regulatory factors, NHERF1 and NHERF2, are adapter proteins involved in targeting and assembly of protein complexes. The parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR) interacts with both NHERF1 and NHERF2. The NHERF proteins toggle PTHR signaling from predominantly activation of adenylyl cyclase in the absence of NHERF to principally stimulation of phospholipase C when the NHERF proteins are expressed. We hypothesized that this signaling switch occurs at the level of the G protein. We measured G protein activation by [³⁵S]GTPγS binding and Gα subtype-specific immunoprecipitation using three different cellular models of PTHR signaling. These studies revealed that PTHR interactions with NHERF1 enhance receptor-mediated stimulation of Gα_q but have no effect on stimulation of Gα_i or Gα_s. In contrast, PTHR associations with NHERF2 enhance receptor-mediated stimulation of both Gα_q and Gα_i but decrease stimulation of Gα_s. Consistent with these functional data, NHERF2 formed cellular complexes with both Gα_q and Gα_i, whereas NHERF1 was found to interact only with Gα_q. These findings demonstrate that NHERF interactions regulate PTHR signaling at the level of G proteins and that NHERF1 and NHERF2 exhibit isotype-specific effects on G protein activation.     

Involvement of Inducible 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase in the Anti-diabetic Effect of Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor γ Activation in Mice

PFKFB3 is the gene that codes for the inducible isoform of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase (iPFK2), a key regulatory enzyme of glycolysis. As one of the targets of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), PFKFB3/iPFK2 is up-regulated by thiazolidinediones. In the present study, using PFKFB3/iPFK2-disrupted mice, the role of PFKFB3/iPFK2 in the anti-diabetic effect of PPARγ activation was determined. In wild-type littermate mice, PPARγ activation (i.e. treatment with rosiglitazone) restored euglycemia and reversed high fat diet-induced insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. In contrast, PPARγ activation did not reduce high fat diet-induced hyperglycemia and failed to reverse insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in PFKFB3^+/− mice. The lack of anti-diabetic effect in PFKFB3^+/− mice was associated with the inability of PPARγ activation to suppress adipose tissue lipolysis and proinflammatory cytokine production, stimulate visceral fat accumulation, enhance adipose tissue insulin signaling, and appropriately regulate adipokine expression. Similarly, in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes, knockdown of PFKFB3/iPFK2 lessened the effect of PPARγ activation on stimulating lipid accumulation. Furthermore, PPARγ activation did not suppress inflammatory signaling in PFKFB3/iPFK2-knockdown adipocytes as it did in control adipocytes. Upon inhibition of excessive fatty acid oxidation in PFKFB3/iPFK2-knockdown adipocytes, PPARγ activation was able to significantly reverse inflammatory signaling and proinflammatory cytokine expression and restore insulin signaling. Together, these data demonstrate that PFKFB3/iPFK2 is critically involved in the anti-diabetic effect of PPARγ activation.     

Pharmacophore-directed Homology Modeling and Molecular Dynamics Simulation of G Protein-coupled Receptor： Study of Possible Binding Modes of 5-HT2c Receptor Agonists

A new pharmacophore-based modeling procedure, including homology modeling, pharmacophore study, flexible molecular docking, and long-time molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, was employed to construct the structure of the human 5-HT_(2C) receptor and determine the characteristics of binding modes of 5-HT_(2C) receptor agonists. An agonist-receptor complex has been constructed based on homology modeling and a pharmacophore hypothesis model based on some high active compounds. Then MD simulations of the ligand-receptor complex in an explicit membrane environment were carried out. The conformation of the 5- HT_(2C) receptor during MD simulation was explored, and the stable binding modes of the studied agonist were determined. Flexible molecular docking of several structurally diverse agonists of the human 5-HT_(2C) receptor was carried out, and the general binding modes of these agonists were investigated. According to the models presented in this work and the results of Flexi-Dock, the involvement of the amino acid residues Asp134, Ser138, Ash210, Asn331, Tyr358, Ile131, Ser132, Val135, Thr139, Ile189, Val202, Val208, Leu209, Phe214, Val215, Gly218, Ser219, Phe223, Trp324, Phe327, and Phe328 in agonist recognition was studied. The obtained binding modes of the human 5-HT_(2C) receptor agonists have good agreement with the site-directed mutagenesis data and other studies.     

δ-Opioid Receptor Activation and MicroRNA Expression of the Rat Cortex in Hypoxia

Prolonged hypoxic/ischemic stress may cause cortical injury and clinically manifest as a neurological disability. Activation of the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) may induce cortical protection against hypoxic/ischemic insults. However, the mechanisms underlying DOR protection are not clearly understood. We have recently found that DOR activation modulates the expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the kidney exposed to hypoxia, suggesting that DOR protection may involve a miRNA mechanism. To determine if the miRNAs expressed in the cortex mediated DOR neuroprotection, we examined 19 miRNAs that were previously identified as hypoxia- and DOR-regulated miRNAs in the kidney, in the rat cortex treated with UFP-512, a potent and specific DOR agonist under hypoxic condition. Of the 19 miRNAs tested, 17 were significantly altered by hypoxia and/or DOR activation with the direction and amplitude varying depending on hypoxic duration and times of DOR treatment. Expression of several miRNAs such as miR-29b, -101b, -298, 324-3p, -347 and 466b was significantly depressed after 24 hours of hypoxia. Similar changes were seen in normoxic condition 24 hours after DOR activation with one-time treatment of UFP-512. In contrast, some miRNAs were more tolerant to hypoxic stress and showed significant reduction only with 5-day (e.g., miR-31 and -186) or 10-day (e.g., miR-29a, let-7f and -511) exposures. In addition, these miRNAs had differential responses to DOR activation. Other miRNAs like miRs-363* and -370 responded only to the combined exposure to hypoxia and DOR treatment, with a notable reduction of >70% in the 5-day group. These data suggest that cortical miRNAs are highly yet differentially sensitive to hypoxia. DOR activation can modify, enhance or resolve the changes in miRNAs that target HIF, ion transport, axonal guidance, free radical signaling, apoptosis and many other functions.     

Nicotine Attenuates Activation of Tissue Resident Macrophages in the Mouse Stomach through the β2 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor

Background

The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is an endogenous mechanism by which the autonomic nervous system attenuates macrophage activation via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR). This concept has however not been demonstrated at a cellular level in intact tissue. To this end, we have studied the effect of nicotine on the activation of resident macrophages in a mouse stomach preparation by means of calcium imaging.

Methods

Calcium transients ([Ca²⁺]_i) in resident macrophages were recorded in a mouse stomach preparation containing myenteric plexus and muscle layers by Fluo-4. Activation of macrophages was achieved by focal puff administration of ATP. The effects of nicotine on activation of macrophages were evaluated and the nAChR involved was pharmacologically characterized. The proximity of cholinergic nerves to macrophages was quantified by confocal microscopy. Expression of β2 and α7 nAChR was evaluated by β2 immunohistochemistry and fluorophore-tagged α-bungarotoxin.

Results

In 83% of macrophages cholinergic varicose nerve fibers were detected at distances <900nm. The ATP induced [Ca²⁺]_i increase was significantly inhibited in 65% or 55% of macrophages by 100µM or 10µM nicotine, respectively. This inhibitory effect was reversed by the β2 nAChR preferring antagonist dihydro-β-eryhtroidine but not by hexamethonium (non-selective nAChR-antagonist), mecamylamine (α3β4 nAChR-preferring antagonist), α-bungarotoxin or methyllycaconitine (both α7 nAChR-preferring antagonist). Macrophages in the stomach express β2 but not α7 nAChR at protein level, while those in the intestine express both receptor subunits.

Conclusion

This study is the first in situ demonstration of an inhibition of macrophage activation by nicotine suggesting functional signaling between cholinergic neurons and macrophages in the stomach. The data suggest that the β2 subunit of the nAChR is critically involved in the nicotine-induced inhibition of these resident macrophages.     

Induction of TNF-α by LPS in Schwann Cell is Regulated by MAPK Activation Signals

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are important mediators of cytokine expression and are critically involved in the immune response. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of gram-negative bacteria induces the expression of cytokines and proinflammatory genes via the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway in diverse cell types. In vivo, Schwann cells (SCs) at the site of injury may also produce tumor necrosis factor-- α (TNF-α). However, the precise mechanisms of TNF-α synthesis are still not clear. The purpose of the present study was to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms in the cultured SCs for its ability to activate the MAPKs and TNF-α gene, in response to LPS. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), it was confirmed that treatment with LPS stimulated the synthesis of TNF-α in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Intracellular location of TNF-α was detected under confocal microscope. Moreover, LPS activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), P38 and stress activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK) and induced their phosphorylation. LPS-elicited SCs TNF-α production was also drastically suppressed by PD98059 (ERK inhibitor), SB202190 (P38 inhibitor), or SP600125 (SAPK/JNK inhibitor). Additionally, the expression of CD14 and TLR4 was examined by RT–PCR. It was demonstrated that the expression of CD14, TLR4 was crucial for the SCs responses to LPS. In conclusion, the results provide novel mechanisms for the response of SCs to LPS stimulation, through MAPKs signaling pathways. Chun Cheng and Yongwei Qin contributed equally to this work.