MiR-499/PRDM16 axis modulates the adipogenic differentiation of mouse skeletal muscle satellite cells

Obesity is associated with increased risks of diverse diseases; brown adipose tissue (BAT) can increase energy expenditure and protect against obesity by increasing the decomposition of white adipose tissue (WAT) to enhance the non-coupled oxidative phosphorylation of fatty acid in adipocytes and contributes to weight loss. However, BAT is abundant in only small rodents and newborn humans, but not in adults. PRDM16 is a key factor that induces the differentiation of skeletal muscle precursors to brown adipocytes and simultaneously inhibits myogenic differentiation. In the present study, we set insulin-induced skeletal muscle satellite cells (SMSCs) adipogenic differentiation model, as confirmed by the contents of adipogenic markers PRDM16, UCP1 and PGC1α and myogenic markers MyoD1 and MyoG. We selected miR-499 as candidate miRNA, which might regulate PRDM16 to affect SMSCs adipogenic differentiation. Possibly through directly binding to PRDM16 3′-UTR, miR-499 negatively regulated PRDM16 expression and hindered SMSCs adipogenic differentiation by reducing adipogenic markers PRDM16, UCP1 and PGC1α and increasing myogenic markers MyoD1 and MyoG. PRDM16 overexpression could partially reverse the effect of miR-499 on the above markers and SMSCs adipogenic differentiation. Taken together, miR-499/PRDM16 axis can affect the balance between SMSC myogenic and adipogenic differentiation, targeting miR-499 to rescue PRDM16 expression, thus promoting SMSCs adipogenic differentiation may be a promising strategy for obesity treatment.     

A novel brown adipocyte-enriched long non-coding RNA that is required for brown adipocyte differentiation and sufficient to drive thermogenic gene program in white adipocytes

The thermogenic activities of brown and beige adipocytes can be exploited to reduce energy surplus and counteract obesity. Recent RNA sequencing studies have uncovered a number of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) uniquely expressed in white and brown adipose tissues (WAT and BAT), but whether and how these lncRNAs function in adipogenesis remain largely unknown. Here, we report the identification of a novel brown adipocyte-enriched LncRNA (AK079912), and its nuclear localization, function and regulation. The expression of AK079912 increases during brown preadipocyte differentiation and in response to cold-stimulated browning of white adipocytes. Knockdown of AK079912 inhibits brown preadipocyte differentiation, manifested by reductions in lipid accumulation and down-regulation of adipogenic and BAT-specific genes. Conversely, ectopic expression of AK079912 in white preadipocytes up-regulates the expression of genes involved in thermogenesis. Mechanistically, inhibition of AK079912 reduces mitochondrial copy number and protein levels of mitochondria electron transport chain (ETC) complexes, whereas AK079912 overexpression increases the levels of ETC proteins. Lastly, reporter and pharmacological assays identify Pparγ as an upstream regulator of AK079912. These results provide new insights into the function of non-coding RNAs in brown adipogenesis and regulating browning of white adipocytes.     

Conditionally immortalized brown preadipocytes can switch between proliferative and differentiated states

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a potential target to treat cardiometabolic disorders because of its capacity to combust glucose and fatty acids for thermoregulation. Its cellular and molecular investigation in humans is hampered by the limited availability of cell material and the heterogeneity of BAT between and within individuals. In this study, monoclonal lines of conditionally immortalized brown preadipocytes (iBPAs) of mouse and human origin were generated. Conditional immortalization was achieved by doxycycline-controlled expression of simian virus 40 large tumor antigen (LT) with a repressor-based Tet-On system. In the presence of doxycycline, both the murine and human cell lines showed long-term proliferation capacity with a population doubling time of ~28 h. After switching off LT expression by doxycycline removal and exposure to adipogenic differentiation medium, cells from both species acquired brown adipocyte properties. This was evidenced by the accumulation of multilocular lipid droplets, the upregulation of brown adipocyte markers including uncoupling protein 1 and an increase in lipolysis and oxygen consumption following adrenergic stimulation. Switching off LT expression before the onset of adipogenic differentiation was only critical for inducing adipogenesis in the human iBPAs, while their murine counterparts showed adipogenesis upon exposure to the adipogenic differentiation cocktail regardless of LT expression. When switched to proliferation medium, cultures of adipogenically differentiated human iBPAs de-differentiated and resumed cell division without losing their adipogenic capacity. We suggest that iBPAs represent an easy-to-use model for fundamental and applied research into BAT offering unique experimental opportunities due to their capacity to switch between proliferative and differentiated states.     

Leptin deficiency impairs adipogenesis and browning response in mouse mesenchymal progenitors

Although phenotypically different, brown adipose tissue (BAT) and inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT) are able to produce heat through non-shivering thermogenesis due to the presence of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). The appearance of thermogenically active beige adipocytes in iWAT is known as browning. Both brown and beige cells originate from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and in culture conditions a browning response can be induced with hypothermia (i.e. 32 °C) during which nuclear leptin immunodetection was observed. The central role of leptin in regulating food intake and energy consumption is well recognised, but its importance in the browning process at the cellular level is unclear. Here, immunocytochemical analysis of MSC-derived adipocytes established nuclear localization of both leptin and leptin receptor suggesting an involvement of the leptin pathway in the browning response. In order to elucidate whether leptin modulates the expression of brown and beige adipocyte markers, BAT and iWAT samples from leptin-deficient (ob/ob) mice were analysed and exhibited reduced brown/beige marker expression compared to wild-type controls. When MSCs were isolated and differentiated into adipocytes, leptin deficiency was observed to induce a white phenotype, especially when incubated at 32 °C. These adaptations were accompanied with morphological signs of impaired adipogenic differentiation. Overall, our results indicate that leptin supports adipocyte browning and suggest a potential role for leptin in adipogenesis and browning.     

Differentially expressed proteins associated with myogenesis and adipogenesis in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue between bulls and steers

The objective of this study was to identify some proteins associated with testosterone-related differences in myogenesis and adipogenesis between bulls and steers. Global proteins were monitored in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue from bulls (n = 20) and steers (n = 20), respectively. We identified four differentially expressed (twofold or more) proteins in skeletal muscle from bulls, myosin light chain 1 (MLC1), ankyrin repeat domain-containing protein 1 (ANKRD1) and heat shock protein beta 1 (HSPB1) that were up-regulated and cofilin 2 (CFL2) that was down-regulated, and also identified two down-regulated proteins in adipose tissue, transaldolase 1 (TALDO1) and l-lactate dehydrogenase B chain (LDHB). In vitro, after myogenic differentiation of a bovine cell line, the mRNA expression of HSPB1 not only increased approximately tenfold in response to differentiation but threefold in response to testosterone addition, respectively, but that of ANKRD1 and CFL2 did not significantly change in response to myogenic differentiation or testosterone addition. Likewise, after adipogenic differentiation of a bovine cell line, the mRNA expression of TALDO1 and LDHB did not significantly vary in response to adipogenic differentiation or testosterone addition. Therefore, we suggest that HSPB1 could have an important role during testosterone-related myogenesis.     

Modulation of adipogenesis-related gene expression by estrogen-related receptor gamma during adipocytic differentiation

Estrogen-related receptor gamma (ERRgamma) is an orphan nuclear receptor that regulates cellular energy metabolism by modulating gene expression involved in oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis in brown adipose tissue and heart. However, the physiological role of ERRgamma in adipogenesis and the development of white adipose tissue has not been well studied. Here we show that ERRgamma was up-regulated in murine mesenchyme-derived cells, especially in ST2 and C3H10T1/2 cells, at mRNA levels under the adipogenic differentiation condition including the inducer of cAMP, glucocorticoid, and insulin. The up-regulation of ERRgamma mRNA was also observed in inguinal white adipose and brown adipose tissues of mice fed a high-fat diet. Gene knockdown by ERRgamma-specific siRNA results in mRNA down-regulation of adipogenic marker genes including fatty acid binding protein 4, PPARgamma, and PGC-1beta in a preadipocyte cell line 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and mesenchymal ST2 and C3H10T1/2 cells in the adipogenesis medium. In contrast, stable expression of ERRgamma in 3T3-L1 cells resulted in up-regulation of these adipogenic marker genes under the adipogenic condition. These results suggest that ERRgamma positively regulate the adipocyte differentiation with modulating the expression of various adipogenesis-related genes.     

Myostatin inhibits brown adipocyte differentiation via regulation of Smad3-mediated β-catenin stabilization

Brown adipocytes play an important role in regulating energy balance, and there is a good correlation between obesity and the amount of brown adipose tissue. Although the molecular mechanism of white adipocyte differentiation has been well characterized, brown adipogenesis has not been studied extensively. Moreover, extracellular factors that regulate brown adipogenic differentiation are not fully understood. Here, we assessed the mechanism of the regulatory action of myostatin in brown adipogenic differentiation using primary brown preadipocytes. Our results clearly showed that differentiation of brown adipocytes was significantly inhibited by myostatin treatment. In addition, myostatin-induced suppression of brown adipogenesis was observed during the early phase of differentiation. Myostatin induced the phosphorylation of Smad3, which led to increased β-catenin stabilization. These effects were blocked by treatment with a Smad3 inhibitor. Expression of brown adipocyte-related genes, such as PPAR-γ, UCP-1, PGC-1α, and PRDM16, were dramatically down-regulated by treatment with myostatin, and further down-regulated by co-treatment with a β-catenin activator. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that myostatin is a potent negative regulator of brown adipogenic differentiation by modulation of Smad3-induced β-catenin stabilization. Our findings suggest that myostatin could be used as an extracellular factor in the control of brown adipocyte differentiation.     

Expression Profiling and Structural Characterization of MicroRNAs in Adipose Tissues of Hibernating Ground Squirrels

Micro RNAs（mi RNAs） are small non-coding RNAs that are important in regulating metabolic stress. In this study, we determined the expression and structural characteristics of 20 mi RNAs in brown（BAT） and white adipose tissue（WAT） during torpor in thirteen-lined ground squirrels. Using a modified stem-loop technique, we found that during torpor, expression of six mi RNAs including let-7a, let-7b, mi R-107, mi R-150, mi R-222 and mi R-31 was significantly downregulated in WAT（P 〈 0.05）, which was 16%–54% of euthermic non-torpid control squirrels,whereas expression of three mi RNAs including mi R-143, mi R-200 a and mi R-519 d was found to be upregulated by 1.32–2.34-fold. Similarly, expression of more mi RNAs was downregulated in BAT during torpor. We detected reduced expression of 6 mi RNAs including mi R-103 a, mi R-107, mi R-125 b, mi R-21, mi R-221 and mi R-31（48%–70% of control）, while only expression of mi R-138 was significantly upregulated（2.91 ± 0.8-fold of the control, P 〈 0.05）. Interestingly,mi RNAs found to be downregulated in WAT during torpor were similar to those dysregulated in obese humans for increased adipogenesis, whereas mi RNAs with altered expression in BAT during torpor were linked to mitochondrial b-oxidation. mi RPath target prediction analysis showed that mi RNAs downregulated in both WAT and BAT were associated with the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase（MAPK） signaling, while the mi RNAs upregulated in WAT were linked to transforming growth factor b（TGFb） signaling. Compared to mouse sequences, no unique nucleotide substitutions within the stem-loop region were discovered for the associated pre-mi RNAs for the mi RNAs used in this study, suggesting no structure-influenced changes in pre-mi RNA processing efficiency in the squirrel. As well, the expression of mi RNA processingenzyme Dicer remained unchanged in both tissues during torpor. Overall, our findings suggest that changes of mi RNA expression in adipose tissues may be linked     

Maternal n-3 PUFA supplementation promotes fetal brown adipose tissue development through epigenetic modifications in C57BL/6 mice

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a crucial regulator of energy expenditure. Emerging evidence suggests that n-3 PUFA potentiate brown adipogenesis in vitro. Since the pregnancy and lactation is a critical time for brown fat formation, we hypothesized that maternal supplementation of n-3 PUFA promotes BAT development in offspring. Female C57BL/6 mice were fed a diet containing n-3 PUFA (3%) derived from fish oil (FO), or an isocaloric diet devoid of n-3 PUFA (Cont) during pregnancy and lactation. Maternal n-3 PUFA intake was delivered to the BAT of neonates significantly reducing the n-6/n-3 ratio. The maternal n-3 PUFA exposure was linked with upregulated brown-specific gene and protein profiles and the functional cluster of brown-specific miRNAs. In addition, maternal n-3 PUFA induced histone modifications in the BAT evidenced by 1) increased epigenetic signature of brown adipogenesis, i.e., H3K27Ac and H3K9me2, 2) modified chromatin-remodeling enzymes, and 3) enriched the H3K27Ac in the promoter region of Ucp1. The offspring received maternal n-3 PUFA nutrition exhibited a significant increase in whole-body energy expenditure and better maintenance of core body temperature against acute cold treatment. Collectively, our results suggest that maternal n-3 PUFA supplementation potentiates fetal BAT development via the synergistic action of miRNA production and histone modifications, which may confer long-lasting metabolic benefits to offspring.     

Thermogenically competent nonadrenergic recruitment in brown preadipocytes by a PPARgamma agonist

Most physiologically induced examples of recruitment of brown adipose tissue (BAT) occur as a consequence of chronic sympathetic stimulation (norepinephrine release within the tissue). However, in some physiological contexts (e.g., prenatal and prehibernation recruitment), this pathway is functionally contraindicated. Thus a nonsympathetically mediated mechanism of BAT recruitment must exist. Here we have tested whether a PPARgamma activation pathway could competently recruit BAT, independently of sympathetic stimulation. We continuously treated primary cultures of mouse brown (pre)adipocytes with the potent peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) agonist rosiglitazone. In rosiglitazone-treated cultures, morphological signs of adipose differentiation and expression levels of the general adipogenic marker aP2 were manifested much earlier than in control cultures. Importantly, in the presence of the PPARgamma agonist the brown adipocyte phenotype was significantly enhanced: UCP1 was expressed even in the absence of norepinephrine, and PPARalpha expression and norepinephrine-induced PGC-1alpha mRNA levels were significantly increased. However, the augmented levels of PPARalpha could not explain the brown-fat promoting effect of rosiglitazone, as this effect was still evident in PPARalpha-null cells. In continuously rosiglitazone-treated brown adipocytes, mitochondriogenesis, an essential part of BAT recruitment, was significantly enhanced. Most importantly, these mitochondria were capable of thermogenesis, as rosiglitazone-treated brown adipocytes responded to the addition of norepinephrine with a large increase in oxygen consumption. This thermogenic response was not observable in rosiglitazone-treated brown adipocytes originating from UCP1-ablated mice; hence, it was UCP1 dependent. Thus the PPARgamma pathway represents an alternative, potent, and fully competent mechanism for BAT recruitment, which may be the cellular explanation for the enigmatic recruitment in prehibernation and prenatal states.     

miR-133a Regulates Adipocyte Browning In Vivo

Prdm16 determines the bidirectional fate switch of skeletal muscle/brown adipose tissue (BAT) and regulates the thermogenic gene program of subcutaneous white adipose tissue (SAT) in mice. Here we show that miR-133a, a microRNA that is expressed in both BAT and SATs, directly targets the 3′ UTR of Prdm16. The expression of miR-133a dramatically decreases along the commitment and differentiation of brown preadipocytes, accompanied by the upregulation of Prdm16. Overexpression of miR-133a in BAT and SAT cells significantly inhibits, and conversely inhibition of miR-133a upregulates, Prdm16 and brown adipogenesis. More importantly, double knockout of miR-133a1 and miR-133a2 in mice leads to elevations of the brown and thermogenic gene programs in SAT. Even 75% deletion of miR-133a (a1^−/−a2^+/−) genes results in browning of SAT, manifested by the appearance of numerous multilocular UCP1-expressing adipocytes within SAT. Additionally, compared to wildtype mice, miR-133a1^−/−a2^+/− mice exhibit increased insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, and activate the thermogenic gene program more robustly upon cold exposure. These results together elucidate a crucial role of miR-133a in the regulation of adipocyte browning in vivo.