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1.
The carbon budget of the tropics has been perturbed as a result of human influences. Here, we attempt to construct a ‘bottom‐up’ analysis of the biological components of the budget as they are affected by human activities. There are major uncertainties in the extent and carbon content of different vegetation types, the rates of land‐use change and forest degradation, but recent developments in satellite remote sensing have gone far towards reducing these uncertainties. Stocks of carbon as biomass in tropical forests and woodlands add up to 271 ± 16 Pg with an even greater quantity of carbon as soil organic matter. Carbon loss from deforestation, degradation, harvesting and peat fires is estimated as 2.01 ± 1.1 Pg annum?1; while carbon gain from forest and woodland growth is 1.85 ± 0.09 Pg annum?1. We conclude that tropical lands are on average a small carbon source to the atmosphere, a result that is consistent with the ‘top‐down’ result from measurements in the atmosphere. If they were to be conserved, they would be a substantial carbon sink. Release of carbon as carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning in the tropics is 0.74 Pg annum?1 or 0.57 MgC person?1 annum?1, much lower than the corresponding figures from developed regions of the world. 相似文献
2.
Sasha Alexander Cara R. Nelson James Aronson David Lamb An Cliquet Kevin L. Erwin C. Max Finlayson Rudolf S. de Groot Jim A. Harris Eric S. Higgs Richard J. Hobbs Roy R. Robin Lewis III Dennis Martinez Carolina Murcia 《Restoration Ecology》2011,19(6):683-689
The Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism has the potential to provide the developing nations with significant funding for forest restoration activities that contribute to climate change mitigation, sustainable management, and carbon‐stock enhancement. In order to stimulate and inform discussion on the role of ecological restoration within REDD+, we outline opportunities for and challenges to using science‐based restoration projects and programs to meet REDD+ goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and storing carbon in forest ecosystems. Now that the REDD+ mechanism, which is not yet operational, has expanded beyond a sole focus on activities that affect carbon budgets to also include those that enhance ecosystem services and deliver other co‐benefits to biodiversity and communities, forest restoration could play an increasingly important role. However, in many nations, there is a lack of practical tools and guidance for implementing effective restoration projects and programs that will sequester carbon and at the same time improve the integrity and resilience of forest ecosystems. Restoration scientists and practitioners should continue to engage with potential REDD+ donors and recipients to ensure that funding is targeted at projects and programs with ecologically sound designs. 相似文献
3.
Jessica L. Forrest Eric W. Sanderson Robert Wallace Teddy Marcelo Siles Lazzo Luis Humberto Gómez Cerveró Peter Coppolillo 《Biotropica》2008,40(3):285-294
This study examines how human land uses and biophysical factors serve as predictors of land cover change in and around Madidi National Park in Bolivia. The Greater Madidi Landscape ranges over an elevational gradient from < 200 m in the Amazon basin to 6000 m in the high Andes, contains more than ten major ecosystem types, and several protected areas and sustainable use zones. In this study, Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite images collected over the study area at the beginning of the 1990s and then the 2000s were classified according to broad land cover types. Below elevations of 3000 m, the landscape experienced equal rates of deforestation and secondary forest increases of approximately 0.63 percent annually, resulting in no significant net change. Below elevations of 1000 m, however, we found an annual net loss in forest cover of 0.11 percent. Across the landscape, land cover change was most likely to occur near areas previously deforested, near roads and population centers, and at low elevations. We found net deforestation rates to be inversely related to strength of natural resource protection laws in protected areas and other jurisdictions. Results suggest little net change for the landscape as a whole, but that local scale changes may be significant, particularly near roads. Management policies favorable for biodiversity conservation in this landscape should limit the building of new roads and immigration to biologically sensitive areas and continue to support protected areas, which are achieving a positive result for forest conservation. 相似文献
4.
Alexander Pfaff Juan Robalino Catalina Sandoval Diego Herrera 《Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences》2015,370(1681)
The leading policy to conserve forest is protected areas (PAs). Yet, PAs are not a single tool: land users and uses vary by PA type; and public PA strategies vary in the extent of each type and in the determinants of impact for each type, i.e. siting and internal deforestation. Further, across regions and time, strategies respond to pressures (deforestation and political). We estimate deforestation impacts of PA types for a critical frontier, the Brazilian Amazon. We separate regions and time periods that differ in their deforestation and political pressures and document considerable variation in PA strategies across regions, time periods and types. The siting of PAs varies across regions. For example, all else being equal, PAs in the arc of deforestation are relatively far from non-forest, while in other states they are relatively near. Internal deforestation varies across time periods, e.g. it is more similar across the PA types for PAs after 2000. By contrast, after 2000, PA extent is less similar across PA types with little non-indigenous area created inside the arc. PA strategies generate a range of impacts for PA types—always far higher within the arc—but not a consistent ranking of PA types by impact. 相似文献
5.
Stephanie A. Spera Gillian L. Galford Michael T. Coe Marcia N. Macedo John F. Mustard 《Global Change Biology》2016,22(10):3405-3413
Historically, conservation‐oriented research and policy in Brazil have focused on Amazon deforestation, but a majority of Brazil's deforestation and agricultural expansion has occurred in the neighboring Cerrado biome, a biodiversity hotspot comprised of dry forests, woodland savannas, and grasslands. Resilience of rainfed agriculture in both biomes likely depends on water recycling in undisturbed Cerrado vegetation; yet little is known about how changes in land‐use and land‐cover affect regional climate feedbacks in the Cerrado. We used remote sensing techniques to map land‐use change across the Cerrado from 2003 to 2013. During this period, cropland agriculture more than doubled in area from 1.2 to 2.5 million ha, with 74% of new croplands sourced from previously intact Cerrado vegetation. We find that these changes have decreased the amount of water recycled to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration (ET) each year. In 2013 alone, cropland areas recycled 14 km3 less (?3%) water than if the land cover had been native Cerrado vegetation. ET from single‐cropping systems (e.g., soybeans) is less than from natural vegetation in all years, except in the months of January and February, the height of the growing season. In double‐cropping systems (e.g., soybeans followed by corn), ET is similar to or greater than natural vegetation throughout a majority of the wet season (December–May). As intensification and extensification of agricultural production continue in the region, the impacts on the water cycle and opportunities for mitigation warrant consideration. For example, if an environmental goal is to minimize impacts on the water cycle, double cropping (intensification) might be emphasized over extensification to maintain a landscape that behaves more akin to the natural system. 相似文献
6.
Eric L. Bullock Curtis E. Woodcock Carlos Souza Pontus Olofsson 《Global Change Biology》2020,26(5):2956-2969
Anthropogenic and natural forest disturbance cause ecological damage and carbon emissions. Forest disturbance in the Amazon occurs in the form of deforestation (conversion of forest to non‐forest land covers), degradation from the extraction of forest resources, and destruction from natural events. The crucial role of the Amazon rainforest in the hydrologic cycle has even led to the speculation of a disturbance “tipping point” leading to a collapse of the tropical ecosystem. Here we use time series analysis of Landsat data to map deforestation, degradation, and natural disturbance in the Amazon Ecoregion from 1995 to 2017. The map was used to stratify the study area for selection of sample units that were assigned reference labels based on their land cover and disturbance history. An unbiased statistical estimator was applied to the sample of reference observations to obtain estimates of area and uncertainty at biennial time intervals. We show that degradation and natural disturbance, largely during periods of severe drought, have affected as much of the forest area in the Amazon Ecoregion as deforestation from 1995 to 2017. Consequently, an estimated 17% (1,036,800 ± 24,800 km2, 95% confidence interval) of the original forest area has been disturbed as of 2017. Our results suggest that the area of disturbed forest in the Amazon is 44%–60% more than previously realized, indicating an unaccounted for source of carbon emissions and pervasive damage to forest ecosystems. 相似文献
7.
将延安北部丘陵沟壑区的吴起、志丹、安塞、子长、延川、延长和宝塔等7县区做为一个整体,利用GIS综合解译分析SPOTVGT、NOAA/AVHRR、EOS/MODIS、TM和DEM数据,揭示该区域退耕还林(草)生态建设工程所取得的实效。1998-2009年NOAA/AVHRR和EOS/MODIS遥感监测表明,该区域在遥感影像图上凸现,在其北部和西部形成一条明显的与行政区边界相吻合的分界线,表明退耕还林后植被覆盖状况正在逐年改善,而且植被恢复情况明显好于其北部和西部。1999-2007年SPOTVGTNDVI演变表明,该区域NDVI正处于快速上升阶段,线性趋势值为0.0078,与其南部次生林区的NDVI差值在明显减小,与北部粮食种植区的NDVI差值在逐渐加大。退耕前后的TM影像解译结果对比分析说明,延安北部近年来退耕还林(草)的成绩是显著的,生态环境有了明显的改善。与1997年相比,到2007年延安北部有68.37%耕地不再耕种,而大于35°的坡耕地91.45%实现了退耕,25-35°的坡耕地有74.70%退耕,绝大部分高坡度耕地实现了退耕,而较低坡度的坡耕地退耕幅度也很大,达到了50%-70%。退出的耕地主要变为草地、林地和果园。TM影像解译结果表明,林草覆盖度增加非常显著,达到65.3%,增加24.3%,以草的面积增加最为明显。低植被覆盖度的土地面积在大幅度减少,植被覆盖度小于10%的面积减少了83.42%;中植被覆盖度面积在显著增加,到2007年,植被覆盖度在30%-50%的面积最大,占总面积的47.2%,将近一半;高植被覆盖度面积也明显增加,由1997年的6%增加到2007年22%。TM影像与DEM数据叠加分析表明,土壤侵蚀强度总体上降低,强度、极强度和剧烈等级土壤侵蚀的土地面积减少50%以上,但极强度和剧烈的高等级土壤侵蚀面积仍占2007年国土总面积的13.3%,土壤侵蚀状况仍然严重。植被以灌木和草为主,乔木面积较低,森林覆盖率只有22.4%,因此需要继续加强治理。 相似文献
8.
Norman W. H. Mason Lawrence E. Burrows Robert J. Holdaway Fiona E. Carswell Sarah J. Richardson 《植被学杂志》2023,34(5):e13205
Question
Natural reforestation is an important component of climate mitigation and adaptation, but the ecological processes promoting or constraining it are poorly understood. In this study we employ a stand reconstruction approach (which uses ages of extant trees to estimate year of establishment for each individual tree) to test for general trait-based effects on tree species arrival order in post-agricultural forest successions.Location
Naturally reforesting post-agricultural landscapes throughout New Zealand.Methods
Ages were obtained for 2434 individuals spanning 30 tree species across a nationwide network of 128 plots in 14 naturally reforesting post-agricultural sites. These ages were used to calculate individual-level arrival times (relative to the oldest individual in each plot). We estimated species-level arrival times by fitting linear mixed-effects (LME) regressions (with species identity as the fixed effect, and plots nested within sites as the random effects) to individual arrival time data. We used back-casting (where arrival time data are used to document individual-level presence in plots through time) to track annual changes in species abundance and community-weighted mean (CWM) trait values. We used standardised major axis (SMA) regressions to examine the effect of traits related to resource use strategy, herbivory avoidance, seed dispersal and disturbance response on species-level arrival times. We used LME regressions to test for changes in CWM trait values with stand age.Results
The earliest-arriving species had traits associated with herbivory avoidance, were abiotically dispersed and had short predicted dispersal distances. There was no evidence that traits linked to resource use strategy or disturbance response affected species arrival times. Every significant species-level relationship was recovered in community-level LME analyses.Conclusions
Our findings suggest that mammalian herbivore control and enhancement of biotic (bird) seed dispersal may be key management interventions in realising the full climate mitigation and adaptation potential of natural reforestation in post-agricultural landscapes. 相似文献9.
Monitoring forest degradation in tropical regions by remote sensing: some methodological issues 总被引：6，自引：0，他引：6
Eric F. Lambin 《Global Ecology and Biogeography》1999,8(3-4):191-198
10.
Shifting cultivation is a widespread practice in tropical forested areas that policy makers often regard as the major cause of forest degradation. Secondary fallow forests regrowing after shifting cultivation are generally not viewed as suitable for biodiversity conservation and carbon retention. Drawing upon our research in the Philippines and other relevant case studies, we compared the biodiversity and carbon sequestration in recovering secondary forests after shifting cultivation to other land uses that commonly follow shifting cultivation. Regenerating secondary forests had higher biodiversity than fast growing timber plantations and other restoration options available in the area. Some old plantations, however, provided carbon benefits comparable the old growth forest, although their biodiversity was less than that of the regenerating forests. Our study demonstrates that secondary forests regrowing after shifting cultivation have a high potential for biodiversity and carbon sequestration co‐benefits, representing an effective strategy for forest management and restoration in countries where they are common and where the forest is an integral part of rural people's livelihoods. We discuss the issues and potential mechanisms through which such dynamic land use can be incorporated into development projects that are currently financing the sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of tropical forests. 相似文献
11.
Mercedes M. C. Bustamante Iris Roitman T. Mitchell Aide Ane Alencar Liana O. Anderson Luiz Aragão Gregory P. Asner Jos Barlow Erika Berenguer Jeffrey Chambers Marcos H. Costa Thierry Fanin Laerte G. Ferreira Joice Ferreira Michael Keller William E. Magnusson Lucia Morales‐Barquero Douglas Morton Jean P. H. B. Ometto Michael Palace Carlos A. Peres Divino Silvério Susan Trumbore Ima C. G. Vieira 《Global Change Biology》2016,22(1):92-109
Tropical forests harbor a significant portion of global biodiversity and are a critical component of the climate system. Reducing deforestation and forest degradation contributes to global climate‐change mitigation efforts, yet emissions and removals from forest dynamics are still poorly quantified. We reviewed the main challenges to estimate changes in carbon stocks and biodiversity due to degradation and recovery of tropical forests, focusing on three main areas: (1) the combination of field surveys and remote sensing; (2) evaluation of biodiversity and carbon values under a unified strategy; and (3) research efforts needed to understand and quantify forest degradation and recovery. The improvement of models and estimates of changes of forest carbon can foster process‐oriented monitoring of forest dynamics, including different variables and using spatially explicit algorithms that account for regional and local differences, such as variation in climate, soil, nutrient content, topography, biodiversity, disturbance history, recovery pathways, and socioeconomic factors. Generating the data for these models requires affordable large‐scale remote‐sensing tools associated with a robust network of field plots that can generate spatially explicit information on a range of variables through time. By combining ecosystem models, multiscale remote sensing, and networks of field plots, we will be able to evaluate forest degradation and recovery and their interactions with biodiversity and carbon cycling. Improving monitoring strategies will allow a better understanding of the role of forest dynamics in climate‐change mitigation, adaptation, and carbon cycle feedbacks, thereby reducing uncertainties in models of the key processes in the carbon cycle, including their impacts on biodiversity, which are fundamental to support forest governance policies, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. 相似文献
12.
The pristine rain forest? Remnants of historical human impacts on current tree species composition and diversity 总被引：7，自引：0，他引：7
Barend S. van Gemerden Han Olff † Marc P.E. Parren Frans Bongers 《Journal of Biogeography》2003,30(9):1381-1390
Abstract Aim Tropical rain forests are often regarded as pristine and undisturbed by humans. In Central Africa, community‐wide disturbances by natural causes are rare and therefore current theory predicts that natural gap phase dynamics structure tree species composition and diversity. However, the dominant tree species in many African forests recruit poorly, despite the presence of gaps. To explain this, we studied the disturbance history of a species‐rich and structurally complex rain forest. Location Lowland rain forest in Southern Cameroon. Methods We identified the recruitment conditions of trees in different diameter classes in 16 ha of species‐rich and structurally complex ‘old growth’ rain forest. For the identification of recruitment preference we used independent data on the species composition along a disturbance gradient, ranging from shifting cultivation fields (representing large‐scale disturbance), to canopy gaps and old growth forest. Results In nine of sixteen 1‐ha forest plots the older trees preferred shifting cultivation fields for recruitment while younger trees preferred gaps and closed forest conditions. This indicates that these nine sites once experienced large‐scale disturbances. Three lines of evidence suggest that historical agricultural use is the most likely disturbance factor: (1) size of disturbed and undisturbed patches, (2) distribution of charcoal and (3) historical accounts of human population densities. Main conclusions Present‐day tree species composition of a structurally complex and species‐rich Central African rain forest still echoes historical disturbances, most probably caused by human land use between three to four centuries ago. Human impact on African rain forest is therefore, contrary to common belief, an issue not of the last decades only. Insights in historical use will help to get a more balanced view of the ‘pristine rain forest’, acknowledging that the dualism between ‘old growth’ and ‘secondary’ forest may be less clear than previously thought. 相似文献
13.
Matthias Forkel Mirco Migliavacca Kirsten Thonicke Markus Reichstein Sibyll Schaphoff Ulrich Weber Nuno Carvalhais 《Global Change Biology》2015,21(9):3414-3435
Identifying the relative importance of climatic and other environmental controls on the interannual variability and trends in global land surface phenology and greenness is challenging. Firstly, quantifications of land surface phenology and greenness dynamics are impaired by differences between satellite data sets and phenology detection methods. Secondly, dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs) that can be used to diagnose controls still reveal structural limitations and contrasting sensitivities to environmental drivers. Thus, we assessed the performance of a new developed phenology module within the LPJmL (Lund–Potsdam–Jena managed Lands) DGVM with a comprehensive ensemble of three satellite data sets of vegetation greenness and ten phenology detection methods, thereby thoroughly accounting for observational uncertainties. The improved and tested model allows us quantifying the relative importance of environmental controls on interannual variability and trends of land surface phenology and greenness at regional and global scales. We found that start of growing season interannual variability and trends are in addition to cold temperature mainly controlled by incoming radiation and water availability in temperate and boreal forests. Warming‐induced prolongations of the growing season in high latitudes are dampened by a limited availability of light. For peak greenness, interannual variability and trends are dominantly controlled by water availability and land‐use and land‐cover change (LULCC) in all regions. Stronger greening trends in boreal forests of Siberia than in North America are associated with a stronger increase in water availability from melting permafrost soils. Our findings emphasize that in addition to cold temperatures, water availability is a codominant control for start of growing season and peak greenness trends at the global scale. 相似文献
14.
Anton Lamboj Oliver Lucanus Patrick Osei Darko J. Pablo Arroyo-Mora Margaret Kalacska 《Biotropica》2020,52(5):896-912
Remote sensing has become an integral and invaluable tool to inform biodiversity conservation and monitoring of habitat degradation and restoration over time. Despite the disproportionately high levels of biodiversity loss in freshwater ecosystems worldwide, ichthyofauna are commonly overlooked in favor of other keystone species. Freshwater fish, as indicators of overall aquatic ecosystem health, can also be indicators of larger scale problems within an ecosystem. As a case study with multi-temporal, multi-resolution satellite imagery, we examined deforestation and forest fragmentation around the Atewa Forest Reserve, Ghana. Within small creeks, Limbochromis robertsi, a unique freshwater cichlid with an extremely limited distribution range, can be found. Historically, the land cover in the area has undergone substantial deforestation for agriculture and artisanal small-scale mining. In the 1389-km2 study area, we found deforestation accelerated along with increased forest fragmentation in the 2014–2017 period (167.4 km2 of deforestation) with the majority of the forest loss along the river and creek banks due to small-scale mining operations and increased agriculture. Field visits indicated a decrease in the total L. robertsi population by approximately 90% from the early 1990s to 2018. Its distribution has been reduced to higher elevations by anthropogenic habitat barriers at low elevations and the presence of predatory species. Loss of riparian forest through land use and cover change to mining and agriculture contributes to the habitat degradation for this endemic species. Fine spatial- and temporal-scale studies are required to assess habitat characteristics are not captured by global- or continental-scale datasets. 相似文献
15.
G. C. HURTT † S. FROLKING ‡ M. G. FEARON B. MOORE E. SHEVLIAKOVA§¶ S. MALYSHEV§¶ S. W. PACALA§ R. A. HOUGHTON&#; 《Global Change Biology》2006,12(7):1208-1229
To accurately assess the impacts of human land use on the Earth system, information is needed on the current and historical patterns of land‐use activities. Previous global studies have focused on developing reconstructions of the spatial patterns of agriculture. Here, we provide the first global gridded estimates of the underlying land conversions (land‐use transitions), wood harvesting, and resulting secondary lands annually, for the period 1700–2000. Using data‐based historical cases, our results suggest that 42–68% of the land surface was impacted by land‐use activities (crop, pasture, wood harvest) during this period, some multiple times. Secondary land area increased 10–44 × 106 km2; about half of this was forested. Wood harvest and shifting cultivation generated 70–90% of the secondary land by 2000; permanent abandonment and relocation of agricultural land accounted for the rest. This study provides important new estimates of globally gridded land‐use activities for studies attempting to assess the consequences of anthropogenic changes to the Earth's surface over time. 相似文献
16.
R. S. Defries M. C. Hansen J. R. G. Townshend † A. C. Janetos‡ T. R. Loveland§ 《Global Change Biology》2000,6(2):247-254
Accurate assessment of the spatial extent of forest cover is a crucial requirement for quantifying the sources and sinks of carbon from the terrestrial biosphere. In the more immediate context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, implementation of the Kyoto Protocol calls for estimates of carbon stocks for a baseline year as well as for subsequent years. Data sources from country level statistics and other ground‐based information are based on varying definitions of ‘forest’ and are consequently problematic for obtaining spatially and temporally consistent carbon stock estimates. By combining two datasets previously derived from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) at 1 km spatial resolution, we have generated a prototype global map depicting percentage tree cover and associated proportions of trees with different leaf longevity (evergreen and deciduous) and leaf type (broadleaf and needleleaf). The product is intended for use in terrestrial carbon cycle models, in conjunction with other spatial datasets such as climate and soil type, to obtain more consistent and reliable estimates of carbon stocks. The percentage tree cover dataset is available through the Global Land Cover Facility at the University of Maryland at http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu . 相似文献
17.
《Ecohydrology》2018,11(4)
Fire may alter land cover throughout the landscape and affect run‐off responses to rainfall events in a burnt watershed. Therefore, the challenge is to understand the interactions between forest composition and fire patterns in a karstic, Mediterranean watershed that affects the run‐off regime. The aim of this research is to improve the understanding of the interactive effects of wildfire and land‐cover change on the rainfall–run‐off relationship in a first‐order watershed. To achieve this goal, satellite imagery, official spatial data, and hydrological modelling were used to study forest composition in relation to extreme fire and to simulate run‐off response for 2 rainfall events. The results show that an extreme wildfire had a greater impact on planted forest, composed mostly of pines, than on native species. Additionally, it was found that the land‐cover alternation due to fire affected the run‐off regime and contributed to an increase in maximum discharge and run‐off volume for the 2 rainfall events by ~39–47%. During the regeneration period, the run‐off response for the 2 rainfall events decreased by ~7.7–9%. Wildfires may impact the run‐off response more profoundly as the plantation of pine trees increases. A greater increase in run‐off response may endanger infrastructure in terms of flooding and affect the population well‐being. Watershed management in areas where afforestation is considered should focus on planting native species that are less flammable rather than introducing combustible pines, thus reducing the hydrologic impacts of land‐cover alteration due to wildfire, especially when climate warms and wildfires become more frequent and intense. 相似文献
18.
Ulrich Kreidenweis Florian Humpenöder Laura Kehoe Tobias Kuemmerle Benjamin Leon Bodirsky Hermann Lotze‐Campen Alexander Popp 《Global Change Biology》2018,24(7):3199-3213
Agricultural expansion is a leading driver of biodiversity loss across the world, but little is known on how future land‐use change may encroach on remaining natural vegetation. This uncertainty is, in part, due to unknown levels of future agricultural intensification and international trade. Using an economic land‐use model, we assessed potential future losses of natural vegetation with a focus on how these may threaten biodiversity hotspots and intact forest landscapes. We analysed agricultural expansion under proactive and reactive biodiversity protection scenarios, and for different rates of pasture intensification. We found growing food demand to lead to a significant expansion of cropland at the expense of pastures and natural vegetation. In our reference scenario, global cropland area increased by more than 400 Mha between 2015 and 2050, mostly in Africa and Latin America. Grazing intensification was a main determinant of future land‐use change. In Africa, higher rates of pasture intensification resulted in smaller losses of natural vegetation, and reduced pressure on biodiversity hotspots and intact forest landscapes. Investments into raising pasture productivity in conjunction with proactive land‐use planning appear essential in Africa to reduce further losses of areas with high conservation value. In Latin America, in contrast, higher pasture productivity resulted in increased livestock exports, highlighting that unchecked trade can reduce the land savings of pasture intensification. Reactive protection of sensitive areas significantly reduced the conversion of natural ecosystems in Latin America. We conclude that protection strategies need to adapt to region‐specific trade positions. In regions with a high involvement in international trade, area‐based conservation measures should be preferred over strategies aimed at increasing pasture productivity, which by themselves might not be sufficient to protect biodiversity effectively. 相似文献
19.
Matthias Baumann Ignacio Gasparri María Piquer‐Rodríguez Gregorio Gavier Pizarro Patrick Griffiths Patrick Hostert Tobias Kuemmerle 《Global Change Biology》2017,23(5):1902-1916
Carbon emissions from land‐use changes in tropical dry forest systems are poorly understood, although they are likely globally significant. The South American Chaco has recently emerged as a hot spot of agricultural expansion and intensification, as cattle ranching and soybean cultivation expand into forests, and as soybean cultivation replaces grazing lands. Still, our knowledge of the rates and spatial patterns of these land‐use changes and how they affected carbon emissions remains partial. We used the Landsat satellite image archive to reconstruct land‐use change over the past 30 years and applied a carbon bookkeeping model to quantify how these changes affected carbon budgets. Between 1985 and 2013, more than 142 000 km2 of the Chaco's forests, equaling 20% of all forest, was replaced by croplands (38.9%) or grazing lands (61.1%). Of those grazing lands that existed in 1985, about 40% were subsequently converted to cropland. These land‐use changes resulted in substantial carbon emissions, totaling 824 Tg C between 1985 and 2013, and 46.2 Tg C for 2013 alone. The majority of these emissions came from forest‐to‐grazing‐land conversions (68%), but post‐deforestation land‐use change triggered an additional 52.6 Tg C. Although tropical dry forests are less carbon‐dense than moist tropical forests, carbon emissions from land‐use change in the Chaco were similar in magnitude to those from other major tropical deforestation frontiers. Our study thus highlights the urgent need for an improved monitoring of the often overlooked tropical dry forests and savannas, and more broadly speaking the value of the Landsat image archive for quantifying carbon fluxes from land change. 相似文献
20.
Alan D. Ziegler Jacob Phelps Jia QI Yuen Edward L. Webb Deborah Lawrence Jeff M. Fox Thilde B. Bruun Stephen J. Leisz Casey M. Ryan Wolfram Dressler Ole Mertz Unai Pascual Christine Padoch Lian Pin Koh 《Global Change Biology》2012,18(10):3087-3099
Policy makers across the tropics propose that carbon finance could provide incentives for forest frontier communities to transition away from swidden agriculture (slash‐and‐burn or shifting cultivation) to other systems that potentially reduce emissions and/or increase carbon sequestration. However, there is little certainty regarding the carbon outcomes of many key land‐use transitions at the center of current policy debates. Our meta‐analysis of over 250 studies reporting above‐ and below‐ground carbon estimates for different land‐use types indicates great uncertainty in the net total ecosystem carbon changes that can be expected from many transitions, including the replacement of various types of swidden agriculture with oil palm, rubber, or some other types of agroforestry systems. These transitions are underway throughout Southeast Asia, and are at the heart of REDD+ debates. Exceptions of unambiguous carbon outcomes are the abandonment of any type of agriculture to allow forest regeneration (a certain positive carbon outcome) and expansion of agriculture into mature forest (a certain negative carbon outcome). With respect to swiddening, our meta‐analysis supports a reassessment of policies that encourage land‐cover conversion away from these [especially long‐fallow] systems to other more cash‐crop‐oriented systems producing ambiguous carbon stock changes – including oil palm and rubber. In some instances, lengthening fallow periods of an existing swidden system may produce substantial carbon benefits, as would conversion from intensely cultivated lands to high‐biomass plantations and some other types of agroforestry. More field studies are needed to provide better data of above‐ and below‐ground carbon stocks before informed recommendations or policy decisions can be made regarding which land‐use regimes optimize or increase carbon sequestration. As some transitions may negatively impact other ecosystem services, food security, and local livelihoods, the entire carbon and noncarbon benefit stream should also be taken into account before prescribing transitions with ambiguous carbon benefits. 相似文献