Microbes drive global soil nitrogen mineralization and availability

Soil net nitrogen mineralization rate (N_min), which is critical for soil nitrogen availability and plant growth, is thought to be primarily controlled by climate and soil physical and/or chemical properties. However, the role of microbes on regulating soil N_min has not been evaluated on the global scale. By compiling 1565 observational data points of potential net N_min from 198 published studies across terrestrial ecosystems, we found that N_min significantly increased with soil microbial biomass, total nitrogen, and mean annual precipitation, but decreased with soil pH. The variation of N_min was ascribed predominantly to soil microbial biomass on global and biome scales. Mean annual precipitation, soil pH, and total soil nitrogen significantly influenced N_min through soil microbes. The structural equation models (SEM) showed that soil substrates were the main factors controlling N_min when microbial biomass was excluded. Microbe became the primary driver when it was included in SEM analysis. SEM with soil microbial biomass improved the N_min prediction by 19% in comparison with that devoid of soil microbial biomass. The changes in N_min contributed the most to global soil NH₄⁺‐N variations in contrast to climate and soil properties. This study reveals the complex interactions of climate, soil properties, and microbes on N_min and highlights the importance of soil microbial biomass in determining N_min and nitrogen availability across the globe. The findings necessitate accurate representation of microbes in Earth system models to better predict nitrogen cycle under global change.     

全球降水格局变化下土壤氮循环研究进展

自然和人为因素导致全球降水格局发生改变,降水变化势必影响土壤氮循环,从而影响陆地生态系统生产力和多样性,然而不同降水变化类型对土壤氮循环的影响仍然缺乏足够的认识。因此,本文综合分析了全球和我国降水格局变化特征,简要介绍了6种降水格局变化下土壤氮循环的研究方法（长期降水固定观测、野外降水控制实验、自然降水梯度、室内培养、模型和遥感）,系统综述了3种降水变化类型（降水波动、干旱、干湿交替）,以及降水与温度、氮沉降等交互作用对土壤氮循环影响的研究进展与存在的问题,并展望了未来研究方向,为评估和预测未来降水变化对陆地生态系统功能的影响提供理论依据。     

Modelling climate,CO2 and management impacts on soil carbon in semi-arid agroecosystems

In agroecosystems, there is likely to be a strong interaction between global change and management that will determine whether soil will be a source or sink for atmospheric C. We conducted a simulation study of changes in soil C as a function of climate and CO₂ change, for a suite of different management systems, at four locations representing a climate sequence in the central Great Plains of the US.Climate, CO₂ and management interactions were analyzed for three agroecosystems: a conventional winter wheat-summer fallow rotation, a wheat-corn-fallow rotation and continuous cropping with wheat. Model analyses included soil C responses to changes in the amount and distribution of precipitation and responses to changes in temperature, precipitation and CO₂ as projected by a general circulation model for a 2 × CO₂ scenario.Overall, differences between management systems at all the sites were greater than those induced by perturbations of climate and/or CO₂. Crop residue production was increased by CO₂ enrichment and by a changed climate. Where the frequency of summer fallowing was reduced (wheat-corn-fallow) or eliminated (continuous wheat), soil C increased under all conditions, particularly with increased (640 L L^–1) CO₂. For wheat-fallow management, the model predicted declines in soil C under both ambient conditions and with climate change alone. Increased CO₂ with wheat-fallow management yielded small gains in soil C at three of the sites and reduced losses at the fourth site.Our results illustrate the importance of considering the role of management in determining potential responses of agroecosystems to global change. Changes in climate will determine changes in management as farmers strive to maximize profitability. Therefore, changes in soil C may be a complex function of climate driving management and management driving soil C levels and not be a simple direct effect of either climate or management.     

Experimental fire increases soil carbon dioxide efflux in a grassland long‐term multifactor global change experiment

Numerous studies have demonstrated that soil respiration rates increase under experimental warming, although the long‐term, multiyear dynamics of this feedback are not well constrained. Less is known about the effects of single, punctuated events in combination with other longer‐duration anthropogenic influences on the dynamics of soil carbon (C) loss. In 2012 and 2013, we assessed the effects of decadal‐scale anthropogenic global change – warming, increased nitrogen (N) deposition, elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂), and increased precipitation – on soil respiration rates in an annual‐dominated Mediterranean grassland. We also investigated how controlled fire and an artificial wet‐up event, in combination with exposure to the longer‐duration anthropogenic global change factors, influenced the dynamics of C cycling in this system. Decade‐duration surface soil warming (1–2 °C) had no effect on soil respiration rates, while +N addition and elevated CO₂ concentrations increased growing‐season soil CO₂ efflux rates by increasing annual aboveground net primary production (NPP) and belowground fine root production, respectively. Low‐intensity experimental fire significantly elevated soil CO₂ efflux rates in the next growing season. Based on mixed‐effects modeling and structural equation modeling, low‐intensity fire increased growing‐season soil respiration rates through a combination of three mechanisms: large increases in soil temperature (3–5 °C), significant increases in fine root production, and elevated aboveground NPP. Our study shows that in ecosystems where soil respiration has acclimated to moderate warming, further increases in soil temperature can stimulate greater soil CO₂ efflux. We also demonstrate that punctuated short‐duration events such as fire can influence soil C dynamics with implications for both the parameterization of earth system models (ESMs) and the implementation of climate change mitigation policies that involve land‐sector C accounting.     

氮添加对森林土壤有机碳库固存及CO2排放的影响研究进展

氮添加会引起土壤理化性质和养分有效性的改变。受此影响,森林植物的地上碳同化能力和地下碳分配格局也会相应地发生变化,总体表现为促进植物生长固碳,增加凋落物和植物根系沉积碳输入土壤,并改变上述植物源有机质的数量和化学成分。与此同时,土壤微生物的群落结构和生态功能也会受到氮添加的影响,由于土壤中的有机碳分解、转化和稳定等过程均受到微生物的驱动,因此,氮添加所引起的底物供应差异和微生物响应会影响森林土壤有机碳的矿化,并最终影响森林土壤有机碳库固存、稳定和CO₂排放。但目前关于氮添加对森林土壤有机碳库固存能力和CO₂排放特征的影响机制仍不清楚,为此,以森林土壤的碳循环过程为线索,综述了氮添加对底物供应、土壤有机碳激发效应、微生物碳代谢等过程的影响,并尝试梳理在氮添加影响下森林土壤有机碳分解、转化和稳定的微生物驱动机制。这有助于预测氮添加对森林土壤"氮促碳汇"的实际效果,以便研究人员在未来氮沉降日益严重背景下更好地预测森林土壤的碳循环特征,寻找提高森林土壤有机碳库固存能力和降低CO₂排放相关途径提供参考。同时,还分析了目前相关研究中存在的问题,并对该领域未来的研究热点进行了展望。     

全球变化野外控制试验及其在土壤微生物生态学研究中的应用

全球变化是近几十年世界广泛关注的热点之一.土地利用变化和化石能源消耗已引起如温室气体增多、气温升高、降水格局改变等多种形式的变化.这些变化对整个生态系统过程,特别是陆地生态系统碳氮循环过程有着深远影响.自20世纪70年代以来,世界各地已开展大量野外控制试验用以模拟单因子和多因子气候变化的影响,这些研究对解释生态系统响应和适应全球变化的内在机制提供了重要的基础.本文梳理了全球变化控制试验的发展历程,介绍了不同因子模拟控制试验的研究概况及不足之处,重点阐述CO₂倍增、增温、降水和模拟氮沉降等全球变化控制试验在土壤微生物生态学研究中的应用,探析土壤微生物及其介导的生态学过程对全球变化的响应和反馈,并对未来野外控制试验需关注的问题和研究方向进行了展望,为认识气候变化对地下生态系统的影响提供参考.     

Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogen Assimilation in a Temperate Saline Ecosystem

As nitrogen is known to be a limiting factor for plant growth, we were interested in the relationship between soil microbial activity and the nitrogen assimilation of 5 different halophytes from 4 saline sites near the lake “Neusiedlersee”, Austria. The following were studied between May and October 1985: nitrogen fixation (¹⁵N₂ and acetylene reduction): N-mineralization; several soil characteristics and in vivo nitrate reductase activity of roots and shoots of these plants. NO^?₃, org. N- and carboxylate contents of both roots and shoots, as well as the effect of NO^?₃-fertilization on the amounts of these substances, were determined on plants growing in the field during a 3-day period in September 1985. Fertilization led to a decrease in acetylene reduction activity at most sites, and an increase in the nitrate reductase activity of the shoots of all plants. Overall, carboxylate and organic nitrogen contents of these halophytes did not change in response to fertilization. Only in the roots of Aster tripolium and Atriplex hastata was there a marked increase in the nitrate reductase activity in response to fertilization. Species growing at the same site, such as Plantago maritima and Lepidium crassifolium showed contrasting levels of assimilatory activity. Apparent low rates of ammonification and nitrification were detected in soils from the 4 sites. The results are discussed in relation to the nitrogen and carbon economies of the microorganisms and plants.     

Historical precipitation predictably alters the shape and magnitude of microbial functional response to soil moisture

Soil moisture constrains the activity of decomposer soil microorganisms, and in turn the rate at which soil carbon returns to the atmosphere. While increases in soil moisture are generally associated with increased microbial activity, historical climate may constrain current microbial responses to moisture. However, it is not known if variation in the shape and magnitude of microbial functional responses to soil moisture can be predicted from historical climate at regional scales. To address this problem, we measured soil enzyme activity at 12 sites across a broad climate gradient spanning 442–887 mm mean annual precipitation. Measurements were made eight times over 21 months to maximize sampling during different moisture conditions. We then fit saturating functions of enzyme activity to soil moisture and extracted half saturation and maximum activity parameter values from model fits. We found that 50% of the variation in maximum activity parameters across sites could be predicted by 30‐year mean annual precipitation, an indicator of historical climate, and that the effect is independent of variation in temperature, soil texture, or soil carbon concentration. Based on this finding, we suggest that variation in the shape and magnitude of soil microbial response to soil moisture due to historical climate may be remarkably predictable at regional scales, and this approach may extend to other systems. If historical contingencies on microbial activities prove to be persistent in the face of environmental change, this approach also provides a framework for incorporating historical climate effects into biogeochemical models simulating future global change scenarios.     

Transplantation of organic surface horizons of boreal soils into warmer regions alters microbiology but not the temperature sensitivity of decomposition

Changes in soil carbon, the largest terrestrial carbon pool, are critical for the global carbon cycle, atmospheric CO₂ levels and climate. Climate warming is predicted to be most pronounced in the northern regions and therefore the large soil carbon pool residing in boreal forests will be subject to larger global warming impact than soil carbon pools in the temperate or the tropical forest. A major uncertainty in current estimates of the terrestrial carbon balance is related to decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM). We hypothesized that when soils are exposed to warmer climate the structure of the ground vegetation will change much more rapidly than the dominant tree species. This change will alter the quality and amount of litter input to the soil and induce changes in microbial communities, thus possibly altering the temperature sensitivity of SOM decomposition. We transferred organic surface soil sections from the northern borders of the boreal forest zone to corresponding forest sites in the southern borders of the boreal forest zone and studied the effects of warmer climate after an adaptation period of 2 years. The results showed that initially ground vegetation and soil microbial community structure and community functions were different in northern and southern forest sites and that 2 years of exposure to warmer climate was long enough to cause changes in these ecological indicators. The rate of SOM decomposition was approximately equally sensitive to temperature irrespective of changes in vegetation or microbial communities in the studied forest sites. However, as temperature sensitivity of the decomposition increases with decreasing temperature regime, the proportional increase in the decomposition rate in northern latitudes could lead to significant carbon losses from the soils.     

大气CO2浓度升高对土壤碳库稳定性的影响

工业革命以来,大气CO₂浓度持续上升,升高的CO₂浓度会改变植物光合产物积累、土壤碳库的碳输入和碳输出过程,进而通过影响有机碳组成和周转特征来调控土壤碳库动态变化。土壤碳库是陆地生态系统碳库的重要组成部分,其碳储量的微小变化都会对大气CO₂浓度和气候变化产生巨大影响。但目前关于CO₂浓度升高对土壤碳库动态和稳定性的影响还不清楚,很大程度上限制了预测陆地生态系统碳循环对气候变化的反馈。系统综述国内外大气CO₂浓度升高对植被生产力、植被碳输入和土壤碳库影响的研究进展,旨在揭示土壤碳库物理、化学组成以及周转特征对CO₂浓度升高的响应过程和机理,探讨CO₂升高情境下土壤微生物特征对土壤碳库稳定性的影响和驱动机制,为深入理解全球变化下的土壤碳循环特征提供理论支撑。     

基于BIOLOG技术分析氮沉降和降水对土壤微生物功能多样性的影响

土壤微生物是有机物分解和养分循环的主要介质,因此在维持土壤的功能多样性和持续性方面发挥着关键作用。气候变化驱动因素会影响土壤微生物的生理活动,引起其群落结构和功能多样性的改变,并对生物地球化学循环和气候―生态系统反馈产生连锁效应,其中氮沉降和降水是全球气候变化的研究热点。土壤氮(N)的有效性有可能通过改变微生物的群落组成以调节微生物对降水变化的响应,但目前关于N沉降和降水及其交互作用对土壤微生物群落功能多样性的影响机制仍不清楚。为了准确预测未来气候条件下生态系统的功能状况,需要更好地了解土壤微生物对环境变化的响应。基于BIOLOG技术综述了氮沉降和降水变化及其交互作用对土壤微生物功能多样性影响的相关研究进展,可以为进一步研究全球气候变化背景下地下生态学的发展提供参考。另外,分析阐述了当前工作中存在的一些主要瓶颈,并对未来的研究热点进行了探讨和展望。     

荒漠草原4种典型植物枯落物分解过程中土壤呼吸对短期氮、水变化的响应

土壤呼吸作为陆地生态系统碳循环的重要组成部分,对研究干旱半干旱区荒漠草原碳平衡具有重要意义。选取荒漠草原4种典型植物枯落物进行裂区实验,设置氮、水添加实验处理,探讨不同的枯落物地表,短期氮、水处理对荒漠草原土壤呼吸的影响。结果表明,土壤呼吸日动态呈单峰曲线,最大值出现在10:00—12:00。相同处理间不同枯落物地表和相同枯落物地表不同处理间土壤呼吸在白天和夜间均有差异(P<0.05)。枯落物对土壤呼吸贡献表明,短期不做任何处理的枯落物对土壤呼吸的贡献最大,贡献率高达68%—89%。多因素方差分析显示,氮及氮和水交互作用对土壤呼吸的影响显著。呼吸在降水处理间存在显著差异(P<0.05),表现为减雨(P3)>增雨(P2)>正常(P1);呼吸在氮素处理间存在极显著差异(P<0.001),表现为添氮(N1)>不添氮(N0)。土壤呼吸与土壤温度、土壤湿度拟合发现,短期的氮、水处理下土壤温度与土壤呼吸显著相关(P<0.05),可解释呼吸变化的50.3%—69.9%;土壤湿度对呼吸影响不显著(P>0.05),温度、湿度的交互作用对土壤呼吸的影响显著(...     

Variations in soil carbon sequestration and their determinants along a precipitation gradient in seasonally dry tropical forest ecosystems

The effect of precipitation regime on the C cycle of tropical forests is poorly understood, despite the existence of models that suggest a drier climate may substantially alter the source‐sink function of these ecosystems. Along a precipitation regime gradient containing 12 mature seasonally dry tropical forests growing under otherwise similar conditions (similar annual temperature, rainfall seasonality, and geological substrate), we analyzed the influence of variation in annual precipitation (1240 to 642 mm) and duration of seasonal drought on soil C. We investigated litterfall, decomposition in the forest floor, and C storage in the mineral soil, and analyzed the dependence of these processes and pools on precipitation. Litterfall decreased slightly – about 10% – from stands with 1240 mm yr^?1 to those with 642 mm yr^?1, while the decomposition decreased by 56%. Reduced precipitation strongly affected C storage and basal respiration in the mineral soil. Higher soil C storage at the drier sites was also related to the higher chemical recalcitrance of litter (fine roots and forest floor) and the presence of charcoal across sites, suggesting an important indirect influence of climate on C sequestration. Basal respiration was controlled by the amount of recalcitrant organic matter in the mineral soil. We conclude that in these forest ecosystems, the long‐term consequences of decreased precipitation would be an increase in organic layer and mineral soil C storage, mainly due to lower decomposition and higher chemical recalcitrance of organic matter, resulting from changes in litter composition and, likely also, wildfire patterns. This could turn these seasonally dry tropical forests into significant soil C sinks under the predicted longer drought periods if primary productivity is maintained.     

气候因子通过土壤微生物生物量氮促进青藏高原高寒草地地上生态系统功能

近年来, 在人类活动和气候变化的影响下, 物种多样性丧失趋势不断加剧, 对生态系统功能带来严重后果。目前, 关于生态系统功能的研究, 忽略了土壤和微生物碳氮养分循环过程对地上生态系统功能(AEF)的重要驱动作用, 而土壤碳氮要素和微生物的任何变化都有可能改变地下群落对生态系统功能的维持作用。该研究旨在探究高寒草地AEF的主要控制因子, 以及其关键要素对AEF的作用机理。2015年7-8月, 对青藏高原地区115个样点进行了草地群落和土壤属性等要素样带调查; 综合植物地上生物量, 叶片碳、氮和磷含量等参数计算AEF值, 分析地下土壤有机碳含量、全氮含量、生物量等关键要素对AEF值的影响。结合取样点年降水量和年平均气温, 深入探讨影响AEF的主要控制因子和作用机理。结果表明降水对AEF有较大影响, 而气温影响相对较低。年降水量、土壤微生物生物量碳含量和干旱指数对AEF值的相对重要性贡献较高(重要值分别为21.1%、10.9%和10.1%), 控制青藏高原高寒草地AEF值的关键是土壤因子。在气候因子对土壤养分和微生物的作用下, 土壤微生物生物量氮含量在调控高寒草地AEF值方面发挥重要作用。     

Soil organic carbon dynamics jointly controlled by climate,carbon inputs,soil properties and soil carbon fractions

Soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics are regulated by the complex interplay of climatic, edaphic and biotic conditions. However, the interrelation of SOC and these drivers and their potential connection networks are rarely assessed quantitatively. Using observations of SOC dynamics with detailed soil properties from 90 field trials at 28 sites under different agroecosystems across the Australian cropping regions, we investigated the direct and indirect effects of climate, soil properties, carbon (C) inputs and soil C pools (a total of 17 variables) on SOC change rate (r_C, Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1). Among these variables, we found that the most influential variables on r_C were the average C input amount and annual precipitation, and the total SOC stock at the beginning of the trials. Overall, C inputs (including C input amount and pasture frequency in the crop rotation system) accounted for 27% of the relative influence on r_C, followed by climate 25% (including precipitation and temperature), soil C pools 24% (including pool size and composition) and soil properties (such as cation exchange capacity, clay content, bulk density) 24%. Path analysis identified a network of intercorrelations of climate, soil properties, C inputs and soil C pools in determining r_C. The direct correlation of r_C with climate was significantly weakened if removing the effects of soil properties and C pools, and vice versa. These results reveal the relative importance of climate, soil properties, C inputs and C pools and their complex interconnections in regulating SOC dynamics. Ignorance of the impact of changes in soil properties, C pool composition and C input (quantity and quality) on SOC dynamics is likely one of the main sources of uncertainty in SOC predictions from the process‐based SOC models.     

Soil carbon dynamics following land‐use change varied with temperature and precipitation gradients: evidence from stable isotopes

Knowledge of soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics following deforestation or reforestation is essential for evaluating carbon (C) budgets and cycle at regional or global scales. Worldwide land‐use changes involving conversion of vegetation with different photosynthetic pathways (e.g. C₃ and C₄) offer a unique opportunity to quantify SOM decomposition rate and its response to climatic conditions using stable isotope techniques. We synthesized the results from 131 sites (including 87 deforestation observations and 44 reforestation observations) which were compiled from 36 published papers in the literatures as well as our observations in China's Qinling Mountains. Based on the ¹³C natural abundance analysis, we evaluated the dynamics of new and old C in top soil (0–20 cm) following land‐use change and analyzed the relationships between soil organic C (SOC) decomposition rates and climatic factors. We found that SOC decomposition rates increased significantly with mean annual temperature and precipitation in the reforestation sites, and they were not related to any climatic factor in deforestation sites. The mean annual temperature explained 56% of variation in SOC decomposition rates by exponential model (y = 0.0014e^0.1395x) in the reforestation sites. The proportion of new soil C increased following deforestation and reforestation, whereas the old soil C showed an opposite trend. The proportion of new soil C exceeded the proportion of old soil C after 45.4 years' reforestation and 43.4 years' deforestation, respectively. The rates of new soil C accumulation increased significantly with mean annual precipitation and temperature in the reforestation sites, yet only significantly increased with mean annual precipitation in the deforestation sites. Overall, our study provides evidence that SOC decomposition rates vary with temperature and precipitation, and thereby implies that global warming may accelerate SOM decomposition.     

Amending biochar affected enzyme activities and nitrogen turnover in Phaeozem and Luvisol

Soil nitrogen (N) is a vital source of nutrients for maintaining soil fertility and crop production. However, the effect of biochar application rate on the mechanism of organic N transformation and the contribution of enzyme mineralization is still unclear. Therefore, we conducted two 5-year field experiments in contrasting soils (Phaeozem and Luvisol) with biochar application rate at 0 t hm⁻² (CK, 0), 22.5 t hm⁻² (D₁, 1%), 67.5 t hm⁻² (D₂, 3%), and 112.5 t hm⁻² (D₃, 5%) to investigate the potential effects of biochar application rate on soil organic nitrogen (N) turnover and its linkage to enzymatic mineralization in contrasting soil. The results showed that soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) contents, microbial biomass carbon to nitrogen ratio (MBC:MBN) and protease activity are significantly influenced by biochar application rate whereas not by soil type. Ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) and nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) contents, and dehydrogenase activity are significantly changed by soil type whereas not by biochar application rate. Based on the redundancy analysis, we found that organic N fractions are associated with MBN, SOC, and protease in Phaeozem, but related to protease activity in Luvisol. Our findings indicate that organic N turnover is not only related to the bioavailability of N but also requires carbon substrates in Phaeozem, whereas the transformation of organic N in Luvisol is dominated by enzymatic mineralization as the relatively low level of bioavailable N.     

中国北方草地土壤呼吸的空间变异及成因

土壤呼吸是陆地生态系统碳循环的关键指标,决定了土壤源二氧化碳(CO₂)进入大气的通量,对预测全球气候变化背景下区域乃至全球碳循环变化具有重要意义.本文通过室内短期培养试验测定了中国北方草地样带土壤样品的呼吸速率,研究了北方草地土壤呼吸的区域尺度格局及其与主要调控因子的关系.结果表明：土壤呼吸速率自西向东随年均降水量(MAP)增加呈逐渐增加的趋势,变化范围为0.35～2.09 μg CO₂C·g^-1·h^-1.其中,MAP<100 mm时,土壤呼吸速率为0.35～0.73 μg CO₂C·g^-1·h^-1;100 mm 2C·g^-1·h^-1;MAP>300 mm时,土壤呼吸速率为0.83～2.10 μg CO₂ C·g^-1·h^-1.土壤呼吸速率与年均降水量、地上生物量、土壤有机碳氮含量呈显著正相关,而与年均温和pH值呈显著负相关.增强回归树分析显示,年均降水量、地上生物量、土壤有机碳含量和土壤有机氮含量分别解释了土壤呼吸总变异的25.5%、23.6%、18.3%和12.5%,而土壤pH和年均温仅解释了10.8%和9.2%.     

Effects of climate change on nitrogen dynamics in upland soils. 1. A transplant approach

The impact of climate change on N leaching from hill land plant/soil systems was investigated using a transplant technique involving the movement of intact lysimeter cores of three contrasting soil types down an altitudinal gradient at Great Dun Fell, Cumbria. Air and soil temperatures and precipitation were monitored at four elevations down an altitudinal transect using automatic weather stations for a period of two years. The altitudinal sequence of air temperature followed the anticipated pattern, providing mean annual temperatures at the four locations of 3.4, 5.0, 6.3 and 8.1 °C. Lapse rates of both mean air and soil temperatures over the altitudinal range 171–845 m were 6.6 (1993) and 7.0 °C km^–1 (1994). Soil monthly temperature gradients for a particular soil type for each of the two years showed a seasonal range of 6.0 and 7.4 °C km^–1, respectively, and for air temperature of 4.3 and 3.1 °C km^–1. Precipitation gradients showed the expected general increase with altitude, but were less predictable. Inorganic nitrogen leaching was studied in lysimeter leachates with climatic amelioration resulting in dramatic reductions in leachate nitrate concentrations and associated total concentrations of inorganic nitrogen. Decreases in leachate nitrate concentrations were observed for all three soil types studied. Soils receiving supplemented rainfall also showed decreased N concentrations, suggesting that temperature was the main controlling factor responsible for the observed reductions. Increased N uptake by the vegetation, in response to the increases in temperature, is considered to be critical in controlling soil solution chemistry at these sites.     

Long‐term changes in forest carbon under temperature and nitrogen amendments in a temperate northern hardwood forest

Currently, forests in the northeastern United States are net sinks of atmospheric carbon. Under future climate change scenarios, the combined effects of climate change and nitrogen deposition on soil decomposition, aboveground processes, and the forest carbon balance remain unclear. We applied carbon stock, flux, and isotope data from field studies at the Harvard forest, Massachusetts, to the ForCent model, which integrates above‐ and belowground processes. The model was able to represent decadal‐scale measurements in soil C stocks, mean residence times, fluxes, and responses to a warming and N addition experiment. The calibrated model then simulated the longer term impacts of warming and N deposition on the distribution of forest carbon stocks. For simulation to 2030, soil warming resulted in a loss of soil organic matter (SOM), decreased allocation to belowground biomass, and gain of aboveground carbon, primarily in large wood, with an overall small gain in total system carbon. Simulated nitrogen addition resulted in a small increase in belowground carbon pools, but a large increase in aboveground large wood pools, resulting in a substantial increase in total system carbon. Combined warming and nitrogen addition simulations showed a net gain in total system carbon, predominately in the aboveground carbon pools, but offset somewhat by losses in SOM. Hence, the impact of continuation of anthropogenic N deposition on the hardwood forests of the northeastern United States may exceed the impact of warming in terms of total ecosystem carbon stocks. However, it should be cautioned that these simulations do not include some climate‐related processes, different responses from changing tree species composition. Despite uncertainties, this effort is among the first to use decadal‐scale observations of soil carbon dynamics and results of multifactor manipulations to calibrate a model that can project integrated aboveground and belowground responses to nitrogen and climate changes for subsequent decades.