Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?

According to the 'mental time travel hypothesis' animals, unlike humans, cannot mentally travel backwards in time to recollect specific past events (episodic memory) or forwards to anticipate future needs (future planning). Until recently, there was little evidence in animals for either ability. Experiments on memory in food-caching birds, however, question this assumption by showing that western scrub-jays form integrated, flexible, trial-unique memories of what they hid, where and when. Moreover, these birds can adjust their caching behaviour in anticipation of future needs. We suggest that some animals have elements of both episodic-like memory and future planning.     

Cadmium and health in the 21st Century – historical remarks and trends for the future

The first health effect of cadmium (Cd) was lung damage, reported in workers already in the 1930's, while bone effects and proteinuria were reported in the 1940's. After World War II, a bone disease with fractures and severe pain, the itai-itai disease, a form of Cd-induced renal osteomalacia, was identified in Japan. Subsequently, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of Cd were described including its binding to the protein metallothionein. International warnings of health risks from cadmium pollution were issued in the 1970's. WHO, 1992, identified renal dysfunction as the critical effect and a crude quantitative evaluation was presented. In the 1990's population groups in China exposed to Cd via rice were studied and new information on skeletal, renal and reproductive toxicity of Cd was obtained in the ChinaCad project. There was a decrease in Bone Mineral Density (BMD), an increased prevalence of fractures and an increased urinary content of marker proteins of renal dysfunction among persons with long term exposure to Cd. The development of such biomarkers can be seen as a result of applied 'proteomics' research. Variation in metallothionein gene expression was related to development of renal dysfunction, supporting the usefulness of this 'genomic' approach. The ongoing rapid development of 'genomics' and 'proteomics' technologies will improve possibilities for molecular epidemiology studies in the future, providing an even better basis for preventive action. In many countries, Cd exposures are now under better control than in the past. The target for the 21st century is to achieve a totally acceptable exposure situation without adverse health effects from Cd.     

Insects antiviral and anticancer peptides: new leads for the future?

Insect produce wide range of protein and peptides as a first fast defense line against pathogen infection. These agents act in different ways including insect immune system activation or by direct impact on the target tumor cells or viruses. It has been shown that some of the insect peptides suppress viral gene and protein expression, rybosilate DNA, whereas others cause membrane lysis, induce apoptosis or arrest cell cycle. Several of the purified and characterized peptides of insect origin are very promising in treating of serious human diseases like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), herpex simplex virus (HSV) or leukaemia. However, some obstacles need to be overcome. Cytotoxic activity of peptides, susceptibility to proteases or high cost of production remain still unsolved problems. Reports on the peptides antiviral and antitumour mechanisms are scanty. Thus, in this review we present characteristic, mode of action and potential medical applications of insects origin peptides with the antiviral and antitumour activity.     

The future as the key to the past for palaeobotany?

Continued increase in the concentration of atmospheric CO(2) and its possible effects on global climate has generated intense research interest on the likely responses of terrestrial plants and vegetation. Results from this new research provide quantitative information on plant function and growth in an environment with a high CO(2) concentration, but are also relevant to understanding plant growth in the distant past and to the techniques employed by palaeobotanists for reconstructing past climates from fossil plant remains. Experimental CO(2) enrichment of plants has demonstrated direct effects on leaf physiognomy, the tolerance of plants to low temperature and the relationship between tree rings, CO(2) and climate; it therefore signals the need for caution in interpreting palaeoclimates from fossils.     

Artificial chromosomes: a blueprint for the future?

Recent developments in molecular genetics have led to the synthesis of an artificial human chromosome. Because the chromosome replicates and divides normally in human cells, this has exciting possibilities in terms of mankind's ability to influence evolutionary processes and to modify the human genome.     

What does the future hold for clinical microbiology?

In the past decade, clinical microbiology laboratories have undergone important changes with the introduction of molecular biology techniques and laboratory automation. In the future, there will be a need for more rapid diagnoses, increased standardization of testing and greater adaptability to cope with new threats from infectious microorganisms, such as agents of bioterrorism and emerging pathogens. The combination of the new tools that are now being developed in research laboratories, the general reorganization of clinical laboratories and improved communication between physicians and clinical microbiologists should lead to profound changes in the way that clinical microbiologists work.     

Cancer therapy at the crossroads: which direction for the future?

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy has revealed that cell death in tumors undergoing therapy may follow either from auto-oxidative cellular injury (ACI) or from programmed cell death (apoptosis), depending on the particular form of treatment employed and on its intensity. This short review argues not only in favor of ACI as the preferred mode of cell death, but also for a better understanding of the relationship between the nature of the changes stressed cells undergo and patterns of drug resistance accompanying survival if therapy is to become more successful.     

Can climate matching predict the current and future climatic suitability of the UK for the establishment of non-native birds?

Capsule: Current UK distributions of non-native birds poorly match areas identified as being climatically suitable.

Aims: Non-native species are spreading at unprecedented rates and though invasions are expected to increase under climate change, evidence for this is mixed. We assess climatic suitability throughout the UK based on the apparent match to the climate in species’ native ranges and investigate potential climatic limitation within the non-native range.

Methods: Climate was characterized within polygons representing the native ranges of 167 potentially invasive species. Parts of the UK with current and future climate similar to that in the native range were deemed climatically suitable. The incidence of recent observations inside and outside suitable areas was used to test hypotheses about climatic limitation of non-native ranges.

Results: Climate matching suggests that 69 of 167 non-native bird species could currently find climatically suitable areas for establishment in the UK. Future climate change would see this number increase by 14% by 2080. However, observed occurrences of non-native species in the UK were not significantly correlated to climatic suitability. Only 44 of the 69 species with suitable climate in the UK were present. Moreover, 85% of species observed in the UK had some UK occurrences in climatically unsuitable areas and for 57 species their entire UK range was in climatically unsuitable areas. Similar results were apparent for the subset of 12 species with established UK populations.

Conclusions: Climate matching provides a relatively poor indication of the extent of current and future suitable areas because species can adapt to new climates or other factors constrain the native range and many climatically suitable areas are currently unoccupied. Improvements to climate matching techniques and ongoing surveillance are required to refine predictions to support effective management policies.     

What is the future for cord blood stem cells?

Stem and progenitor cells are present in cord blood at a high frequency making these cells a major target population for experimental and clinical studies. Over the past decade there has been considerable developments in cord blood research and transplantation but despite the rapid progress many problems remain. The initial hope that cord blood would be an alternative source of haemopoietic cells for transplantation has been tempered by the fact that there are insufficient cells in most cord blood collections to engraft an adult of average weight. In attempts to increase the cell number, a plethora of techniques for ex-vivo expansion have been developed.These techniques have also proved useful for gene therapy. As cord blood cells possess unique properties this allows them to be utilised as suitable vehicles for gene therapy and long-term engraftment of transduced cells has been achieved. Current work examining the nature of the stem cells present in this haematological source indicates that cord blood contains not only haemopoietic stem cells but also primitive non-haemopoietic cells with high proliferative and developmental potential. As attention focuses on stem cell biology and the controversies surrounding the potential use of embryonic stem cells in treatment of disease, the properties of stem cells from other sources including cord blood are being re-appraised. The purpose of this article is to review some of the current areas of work and highlight biological problems associated with the use of cord blood cells. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

What does the future hold for cell-based tolerogenic therapy?

Evidence from animal models has shown that the transfer of regulatory T cells or tolerogenic dendritic cells can prevent or cure transplant rejection or re-establish self-tolerance in autoimmune disease. The potential of these tolerogenic cells for the treatment of T-cell-mediated diseases in humans has gained momentum in recent years. Here, Nature Reviews Immunology asks four leading researchers to provide their view on the future of cell-based tolerogenic therapy and to highlight some important issues that must be considered before this form of immunotherapy can become a reality.     

Plectranthus: A plant for the future?

The genus Plectranthus (Lamiaceae) is a significant, prolific and extensively used genus in southern Africa. It plays a dominant role in both horticulture and traditional medicine. Some 12 species are documented for their use in treating ailments by various indigenous peoples of southern Africa. It is a firm favourite in gardens and Plectranthus has been bred to further utilise the remarkable diversity of indigenous South African wildflowers with amenity horticultural potential. Although previously subjected to both horticultural (Van Jaarsveld, 2006) and ethnobotanical (Lukhoba et al., 2006) review, Plectranthus is a genus with economic potential in various sectors, and this article aims to review this potential of southern African species.     

Applied biocatalysis for the synthesis of natural flavour compounds – current industrial processes and future prospects

The industrial application of biocatalysis for the production of natural flavour compounds is illustrated by a discussion of the production of vanillin, gamma-decalactone, carboxylic acids, C6 aldehydes and alcohols ('green notes'), esters, and 2-phenylethanol. Modern techniques of molecular biology and process engineering, such as heterologous expression of genes, site-directed mutagenesis, whole-cell biocatalysis in biphasic systems, and cofactor regeneration for in vitro oxygenation, may result in more biocatalytic processes for the production of flavour compounds in the future.     

The metabolic potential of plastics as biotechnological carbon sources – Review and targets for the future

The plastic crisis requires drastic measures, especially for the plastics’ end-of-life. Mixed plastic fractions are currently difficult to recycle, but microbial metabolism might open new pathways. With new technologies for degradation of plastics to oligo- and monomers, these carbon sources can be used in biotechnology for the upcycling of plastic waste to valuable products, such as bioplastics and biosurfactants. We briefly summarize well-known monomer degradation pathways and computed their theoretical yields for industrially interesting products. With this information in hand, we calculated replacement scenarios of existing fossil-based synthesis routes for the same products. Thereby, we highlight fossil-based products for which plastic monomers might be attractive alternative carbon sources. Notably, not the highest yield of product on substrate of the biochemical route, but rather the (in-)efficiency of the petrochemical routes (i.e., carbon, energy use) determines the potential of biochemical plastic upcycling. Our results might serve as a guide for future metabolic engineering efforts towards a sustainable plastic economy.     

Mediterranean island biodiversity and climate change: the last 10,000 years and the future

Mediterranean islands (MI) are hotspots of global biodiversity and lie in one of the most susceptible to climate change (CC) areas of the world; a big challenge for any conservation strategy. In fact, there is already increasing evidence for CC in the region and associated biological responses in MI ecosystems. These include phenological changes and upward elevation shifts of species and plant communities; although evidence is frequently contrasting for different taxa. Threats are also evident, mainly for endemic species from most taxonomic groups, while communities in mountain and coastal regions are likely to be affected most. For MI conservation under CC additional factors need to be considered: (i) their position at the crossroads of three continents; with which they share common environmental characteristics, (ii) their great variability in sizes and topography and (iii) their climatic differences; with a clear west-east basin divide. CC synergies with changing tourist aspiration and agricultural practices will, in the medium term, modify island landscapes and provide further challenges for biodiversity conservation. Such a combined impact from CC, land-use change, fragmentation of habitats and tourism is difficult to predict. Furthermore, the limited space on islands (especially habitat availability and climatic range limitations) imposes a barrier to species range expansion. Thus, conservation of MI biodiversity under CC requires: (i) future research to focus on improved climate predictions linked to improved understanding of ecological (climate-biotic) responses, incorporating lessons learnt from (island) biogeography, (ii) specific adaptation measures for spatial planning and improvement in regional institutional capacities.     

Microbial control in Asia: a bellwether for the future?

Advances and barriers faced by microbial control efforts in Asia offer instructive insights for microbial control in general. The papers in this series, which are based on plenary lectures given at the Society for Invertebrate Pathology 2006 meeting in Wuhan, China, explore the history and current status of microbial control in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, and in doing so, bring to light the following key assumptions that deserve further examination; (1) the adoption rate of microbial control is well documented; (2) microbial control agents can compete directly with conventional insecticides; (3) microbial control agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to produce and develop; (4) patents will promote innovation and investor interest in microbial control. Alternative viewpoints are presented that can hopefully aid in future efforts to develop more safe and effective microbial control agents.     

What gets left behind for future generations? Reproduction and the environment in Spey Bay,Scotland

Based on fieldwork with people involved in the environmental movement in Scotland, this article describes the connections they made between the future of reproduction and the future of the environment. While we are used to thinking of Euro‐American kinship in terms of the passing on of biogenetic substances, in this case an ecological ethic of reproduction, which places the emphasis on considering the kinds of environments into which children will be born, is more salient. An ecological ethic of reproduction urges (potential) parents to consider whether it is responsible to bring future generations into a world with stretched and unequally distributed resources and in which the accumulated consequences of human actions may be altering not only the natural world, but also the ability to reproduce at all.