The UNG2 Arg88Cys variant abrogates RPA-mediated recruitment of UNG2 to single-stranded DNA

In human cell nuclei, UNG2 is the major uracil-DNA glycosylase initiating DNA base excision repair of uracil. In activated B cells it has an additional role in facilitating mutagenic processing of AID-induced uracil at Ig loci and UNG-deficient patients develop hyper-IgM syndrome characterized by impaired class-switch recombination and disturbed somatic hypermutation. How UNG2 is recruited to either error-free or mutagenic uracil processing remains obscure, but likely involves regulated interactions with other proteins. The UNG2 N-terminal domain contains binding motifs for both proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and replication protein A (RPA), but the relative contribution of these interactions to genomic uracil processing is not understood. Interestingly, a heterozygous germline single-nucleotide variant leading to Arg88Cys (R88C) substitution in the RPA-interaction motif of UNG2 has been observed in humans, but with unknown functional relevance. Here we demonstrate that UNG2-R88C protein is expressed from the variant allele in a lymphoblastoid cell line derived from a heterozygous germ line carrier. Enzyme activity as well as localization in replication foci of UNG2-R88C was similar to that of WT. However, binding to RPA was essentially abolished by the R88C substitution, whereas binding to PCNA was unaffected. Moreover, we show that disruption of the PCNA-binding motif impaired recruitment of UNG2 to S-phase replication foci, demonstrating that PCNA is a major factor for recruitment of UNG2 to unperturbed replication forks. Conversely, in cells treated with hydroxyurea, RPA mediated recruitment of UNG2 to stalled replication forks independently of functional PCNA binding. Modulation of PCNA- versus RPA-binding may thus constitute a functional switch for UNG2 in cells subsequent to genotoxic stress and potentially also during the processing of uracil at the immunoglobulin locus in antigen-stimulated B cells.     

RPA2 winged-helix domain facilitates UNG-mediated removal of uracil from ssDNA; implications for repair of mutagenic uracil at the replication fork

Uracil occurs at replication forks via misincorporation of deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP) or via deamination of existing cytosines, which occurs 2–3 orders of magnitude faster in ssDNA than in dsDNA and is 100% miscoding. Tethering of UNG2 to proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) allows rapid post-replicative removal of misincorporated uracil, but potential ‘pre-replicative’ removal of deaminated cytosines in ssDNA has been questioned since this could mediate mutagenic translesion synthesis and induction of double-strand breaks. Here, we demonstrate that uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG), but not SMUG1 efficiently excises uracil from replication protein A (RPA)-coated ssDNA and that this depends on functional interaction between the flexible winged-helix (WH) domain of RPA2 and the N-terminal RPA-binding helix in UNG. This functional interaction is promoted by mono-ubiquitination and diminished by cell-cycle regulated phosphorylations on UNG. Six other human proteins bind the RPA2-WH domain, all of which are involved in DNA repair and replication fork remodelling. Based on this and the recent discovery of the AP site crosslinking protein HMCES, we propose an integrated model in which templated repair of uracil and potentially other mutagenic base lesions in ssDNA at the replication fork, is orchestrated by RPA. The UNG:RPA2-WH interaction may also play a role in adaptive immunity by promoting efficient excision of AID-induced uracils in transcribed immunoglobulin loci.     

Post-replicative base excision repair in replication foci.

Base excision repair (BER) is initiated by a DNA glycosylase and is completed by alternative routes, one of which requires proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and other proteins also involved in DNA replication. We report that the major nuclear uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG2) increases in S phase, during which it co-localizes with incorporated BrdUrd in replication foci. Uracil is rapidly removed from replicatively incorporated dUMP residues in isolated nuclei. Neutralizing antibodies to UNG2 inhibit this removal, indicating that UNG2 is the major uracil-DNA glycosylase responsible. PCNA and replication protein A (RPA) co-localize with UNG2 in replication foci, and a direct molecular interaction of UNG2 with PCNA (one binding site) and RPA (two binding sites) was demonstrated using two-hybrid assays, a peptide SPOT assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. These results demonstrate rapid post-replicative removal of incorporated uracil by UNG2 and indicate the formation of a BER complex that contains UNG2, RPA and PCNA close to the replication fork.     

Distinct roles for DNA-PK,ATM and ATR in RPA phosphorylation and checkpoint activation in response to replication stress

DNA damage encountered by DNA replication forks poses risks of genome destabilization, a precursor to carcinogenesis. Damage checkpoint systems cause cell cycle arrest, promote repair and induce programed cell death when damage is severe. Checkpoints are critical parts of the DNA damage response network that act to suppress cancer. DNA damage and perturbation of replication machinery causes replication stress, characterized by accumulation of single-stranded DNA bound by replication protein A (RPA), which triggers activation of ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related (ATR) and phosphorylation of the RPA32, subunit of RPA, leading to Chk1 activation and arrest. DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) [a kinase related to ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ATR] has well characterized roles in DNA double-strand break repair, but poorly understood roles in replication stress-induced RPA phosphorylation. We show that DNA-PKcs mutant cells fail to arrest replication following stress, and mutations in RPA32 phosphorylation sites targeted by DNA-PKcs increase the proportion of cells in mitosis, impair ATR signaling to Chk1 and confer a G2/M arrest defect. Inhibition of ATR and DNA-PK (but not ATM), mimic the defects observed in cells expressing mutant RPA32. Cells expressing mutant RPA32 or DNA-PKcs show sustained H2AX phosphorylation in response to replication stress that persists in cells entering mitosis, indicating inappropriate mitotic entry with unrepaired damage.     

Analysis of uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG2) stimulation by replication protein A (RPA) at ssDNA-dsDNA junctions

Replication Protein A (RPA) is a single-stranded DNA binding protein that interacts with DNA repair proteins including Uracil DNA Glycosylase (UNG2). Here, I report DNA binding and activity assays using purified recombinant RPA and UNG2. Using synthetic DNA substrates, RPA was found to promote UNG2's interaction with ssDNA-dsDNA junctions regardless of the DNA strand polarity surrounding the junction. RPA stimulated UNG2's removal of uracil bases paired with adenine or guanine in DNA as much as 17-fold when the uracil was positioned 21 bps from ssDNA-dsDNA junctions, and the largest degree of UNG2 stimulation occurred when RPA was in molar excess compared to DNA. I found that RPA becomes sequestered on ssDNA regions surrounding junctions which promotes its spatial targeting of UNG2 near the junction. However, when RPA concentration exceeds free ssDNA, RPA promotes UNG2's activity without spatial constraints in dsDNA regions. These effects of RPA on UNG2 were found to be mediated primarily by interactions between RPA's winged-helix domain and UNG2's N-terminal domain, but when the winged-helix domain is unavailable, a secondary interaction between UNG2's N-terminal domain and RPA can occur. This work supports a widespread role for RPA in stimulating uracil base excision repair.     

Strikingly different properties of uracil-DNA glycosylases UNG2 and SMUG1 may explain divergent roles in processing of genomic uracil

Genomic uracil resulting from spontaneously deaminated cytosine generates mutagenic U:G mismatches that are usually corrected by error-free base excision repair (BER). However, in B-cells, activation-induced cytosine deaminase (AID) generates U:G mismatches in hot-spot sequences at Ig loci. These are subject to mutagenic processing during somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class switch recombination (CSR). Uracil N-glycosylases UNG2 and SMUG1 (single strand-selective monofunctional uracil-DNA glycosylase 1) initiate error-free BER in most DNA contexts, but UNG2 is also involved in mutagenic processing of AID-induced uracil during the antibody diversification process, the regulation of which is not understood. AID is strictly single strand-specific. Here we show that in the presence of Mg2+ and monovalent salts, human and mouse SMUG1 are essentially double strand-specific, whereas UNG2 efficiently removes uracil from both single and double stranded DNA under all tested conditions. Furthermore, SMUG1 and UNG2 display widely different sequence preferences. Interestingly, uracil in a hot-spot sequence for AID is 200-fold more efficiently removed from single stranded DNA by UNG2 than by SMUG1. This may explain why SMUG1, which is not excluded from Ig loci, is unable to replace UNG2 in antibody diversification. We suggest a model for mutagenic processing in which replication protein A (RPA) recruits UNG2 to sites of deamination and keeps DNA in a single stranded conformation, thus avoiding error-free BER of the deaminated cytosine.     

Extensive RPA2 hyperphosphorylation promotes apoptosis in response to DNA replication stress in CHK1 inhibited cells

The replication protein A (RPA)–ssDNA complex formed at arrested replication forks recruits key proteins to activate the ATR-CHK1 signalling cascade. When CHK1 is inhibited during DNA replication stress, RPA2 is extensively hyperphosphorylated. Here, we investigated the role of RPA2 hyperphosphorylation in the fate of cells when CHK1 is inhibited. We show that proteins normally involved in DNA repair (RAD51) or control of RPA phosphorylation (the PP4 protein phosphatase complex) are not recruited to the genome after treatment with CHK1 and DNA synthesis inhibitors. This is not due to RPA2 hyperphosphorylation as suppression of this response does not restore loading suggesting that recruitment requires active CHK1. To determine whether RPA2 hyperphosphorylation protects stalled forks from collapse or induction of apoptosis in CHK1 inhibited cells during replication stress, cells expressing RPA2 genes mutated at key phosphorylation sites were characterized. Mutant RPA2 rescued cells from RPA2 depletion and reduced the level of apoptosis induced by treatment with CHK1 and replication inhibitors however the incidence of double strand breaks was not affected. Our data indicate that RPA2 hyperphosphorylation promotes cell death during replication stress when CHK1 function is compromised but does not appear to be essential for replication fork integrity.     

The ionizing radiation-induced replication protein A phosphorylation response differs between ataxia telangiectasia and normal human cells.

Replication protein A (RPA), the trimeric single-stranded DNA-binding protein complex of eukaryotic cells, is important to DNA replication and repair. Phosphorylation of the p34 subunit of RPA is modulated by the cell cycle, occurring during S and G2 but not during G1. The function of phosphorylated p34 remains unknown. We show that RPA p34 phosphorylation is significantly induced by ionizing radiation. The phosphorylated form, p36, is similar if not identical to the phosphorylated S/G2 form. gamma-Irradiation-induced phosphorylation occurs without new protein synthesis and in cells in G1. Mutation of cdc2-type protein kinase phosphorylation sites in p34 eliminates the ionizing radiation response. The gamma-irradiation-induced phosphorylation of RPA p34 is delayed in cells from ataxia telangiectasia, a human inherited disease conferring DNA repair defects and early-onset tumorigenesis. UV-induced phosphorylation of RPA p34 occurs less rapidly than gamma-irradiation-induced phosphorylation but is kinetically similar between ataxia telangiectasia and normal cells. This is the first time that modification of a repair protein, RPA, has been linked with a DNA damage response and suggests that phosphorylation may play a role in regulating DNA repair pathways.     

Uracil-DNA glycosylases SMUG1 and UNG2 coordinate the initial steps of base excision repair by distinct mechanisms

DNA glycosylases UNG and SMUG1 excise uracil from DNA and belong to the same protein superfamily. Vertebrates contain both SMUG1 and UNG, but their distinct roles in base excision repair (BER) of deaminated cytosine (U:G) are still not fully defined. Here we have examined the ability of human SMUG1 and UNG2 (nuclear UNG) to initiate and coordinate repair of U:G mismatches. When expressed in Escherichia coli cells, human UNG2 initiates complete repair of deaminated cytosine, while SMUG1 inhibits cell proliferation. In vitro, we show that SMUG1 binds tightly to AP-sites and inhibits AP-site cleavage by AP-endonucleases. Furthermore, a specific motif important for the AP-site product binding has been identified. Mutations in this motif increase catalytic turnover due to reduced product binding. In contrast, the highly efficient UNG2 lacks product-binding capacity and stimulates AP-site cleavage by APE1, facilitating the two first steps in BER. In summary, this work reveals that SMUG1 and UNG2 coordinate the initial steps of BER by distinct mechanisms. UNG2 is apparently adapted to rapid and highly coordinated repair of uracil (U:G and U:A) in replicating DNA, while the less efficient SMUG1 may be more important in repair of deaminated cytosine (U:G) in non-replicating chromatin.     

Adenomatous polyposis coli protein regulates the cellular response to DNA replication stress

The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor suppressor traffics between nucleus and cytoplasm to perform distinct functions. Here we identify a specific role for APC in the DNA replication stress response. The silencing of APC caused an accumulation of asynchronous cells in early S phase and delayed S phase progression in cells released from hydroxyurea-mediated replication arrest. Immunoprecipitation assays revealed a selective binding of APC to replication protein A 32kDa subunit (RPA32), and the APC-RPA32 complex increased at chromatin after hydroxyurea treatment. Interestingly, APC knock-down prevented accumulation at chromatin of the stress-induced S33- and S29-phosphorylated forms of RPA32, and reduced the expression of ATR-phosphorylated forms of S317-phospho-Chk1 and γ-H2AX. Using RPA32-inducible cells we showed that reconstitution of RPA32 diminished the S-phase delay caused by loss of APC. In contrast to full-length APC, the truncated APC mutant protein expressed in SW480 colon cancer cells was impaired in its binding and regulation of RPA32, and failed to regulate cell cycle after replication stress. We propose that APC associates with RPA at stalled DNA replication forks and promotes the ATR-dependent phosphorylation of RPA32, Chk1 and γ-H2AX in response to DNA replication stress, thereby influencing the rate of re-entry into the cell cycle.     

DNA damage-induced RPA focalization is independent of gamma-H2AX and RPA hyper-phosphorylation

Replication protein A (RPA) is the major eukaryotic single stranded DNA binding protein that plays a central role in DNA replication, repair and recombination. Like many DNA repair proteins RPA is heavily phosphorylated (specifically on its 32 kDa subunit) in response to DNA damage. Phosphorylation of many repair proteins has been shown to be important for their recruitment to DNA damage-induced intra-nuclear foci. Further, phosphorylation of H2AX (gamma-H2AX) has been shown to be important for either the recruitment or stable retention of DNA repair proteins to these intra-nuclear foci. We address here the relationship between DNA damage-induced hyper-phosphorylation of RPA and its intra-nuclear focalization, and whether gamma-H2AX is required for RPA's presence at these foci. Using GFP-conjugated RPA, we demonstrate the formation of extraction-resistant RPA foci induced by DNA damage or stalled replication forks. The strong DNA damage-induced RPA foci appear after phosphorylated histone H2AX and Chk1, but earlier than the appearance of hyper-phosphorylated RPA. We demonstrate that while the functions of phosphoinositol-3-kinase-related protein kinases are essential for DNA damage-induced H2AX phosphorylation and RPA hyper-phosphorylation, they are dispensable for the induction of extraction-resistant RPA and RPA foci. Furthermore, in mouse cells genetically devoid of H2AX, DNA damage-induced extraction-resistant RPA appears with the same kinetics as in normal mouse cells. These results demonstrate that neither RPA hyper-phosphorylation nor H2AX are required for the formation in RPA intra-nuclear foci in response to DNA damage/replicational stress and are consistent with a role for RPA as a DNA damage sensor involved in the initial recognition of damaged DNA or blocked replication forks.     

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase-dependent DNA breaks in class switch recombination occur during G1 phase of the cell cycle and depend upon mismatch repair

Ab class switching occurs by an intrachromosomal recombination and requires generation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in Ig switch (S) regions. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) converts cytosines in S regions to uracils, which are excised by uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG). Repair of the resulting abasic sites would yield single-strand breaks (SSBs), but how these SSBs are converted to DSBs is unclear. In mouse splenic B cells, we find that AID-dependent DSBs occur in Smu mainly in the G(1) phase of the cell cycle, indicating they are not created by replication across SSBs. Also, G(1) phase cells express AID, UNG, and mismatch repair (MMR) proteins and possess UNG activity. We find fewer S region DSBs in MMR-deficient B cells than in wild-type B cells, and still fewer in MMR-deficient/SmuTR(-/-) B cells, where targets for AID are sparse. These DSBs occur predominantly at AID targets. We also show that nucleotide excision repair does not contribute to class switching. Our data support the hypothesis that MMR is required to convert SSBs into DSBs when SSBs on opposite strands are too distal to form DSBs spontaneously.     

Ionizing radiation-dependent and independent phosphorylation of the 32-kDa subunit of replication protein A during mitosis

The human single-stranded DNA-binding protein, replication protein A (RPA), is regulated by the N-terminal phosphorylation of its 32-kDa subunit, RPA2. RPA2 is hyperphosphorylated in response to various DNA-damaging agents and also phosphorylated in a cell-cycle-dependent manner during S- and M-phase, primarily at two CDK consensus sites, S23 and S29. Here we generated two monoclonal phospho-specific antibodies directed against these CDK sites. These phospho-specific RPA2-(P)-S23 and RPA2-(P)-S29 antibodies recognized mitotically phosphorylated RPA2 with high specificity. In addition, the RPA2-(P)-S23 antibody recognized the S-phase-specific phosphorylation of RPA2, suggesting that during S-phase only S23 is phosphorylated, whereas during M-phase both CDK sites, S23 and S29, are phosphorylated. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that the mitotic phosphorylation of RPA2 starts at the onset of mitosis, and dephosphorylation occurs during late cytokinesis. In mitotic cells treated with ionizing radiation (IR), we observed a rapid hyperphosphorylation of RPA2 in addition to its mitotic phosphorylation at S23 and S29, associated with a significant change in the subcellular localization of RPA. Our data also indicate that the RPA2 hyperphosphorylation in response to IR is facilitated by the activity of both ATM and DNA-PK, and is associated with activation of the Chk2 pathway.     

Human base excision repair complex is physically associated to DNA replication and cell cycle regulatory proteins

It has been hypothesized that a replication associated repair pathway operates on base damage and single strand breaks (SSB) at replication forks. In this study, we present the isolation from the nuclei of human cycling cells of a multiprotein complex containing most of the essential components of base excision repair (BER)/SSBR, including APE1, UNG2, XRCC1 and POLβ, DNA PK, replicative POLα, δ and , DNA ligase 1 and cell cycle regulatory protein cyclin A. Co-immunoprecipitation revealed that in this complex DNA repair proteins are physically associated to cyclin A and to DNA replication proteins including MCM7. This complex is endowed with DNA polymerase and protein kinase activity and is able to perform BER of uracil and AP sites. This finding suggests that a preassembled DNA repair machinery is constitutively active in cycling cells and is ready to be recruited at base damage and breaks occurring at replication forks.     

SMUG1 is able to excise uracil from immunoglobulin genes: insight into mutation versus repair

Mammals harbour multiple enzymes capable of excising uracil from DNA, although their distinct physiological roles remain uncertain. One of them (UNG) plays a critical role in antibody gene diversification, as UNG deficiency alone is sufficient to perturb the process. Here, we show this unique requirement for UNG does not reflect the fact that other glycosylases are unable to access the U:G lesion. SMUG1, if overexpressed, can partially substitute for UNG to assist antibody diversification as judged by its effect on somatic hypermutation patterns (in both DT40 B cells and mice) as well as a restoration of isotype switching in SMUG-transgenic msh2-/- ung-/- mice. However, SMUG1 plays little natural role in antibody diversification because (i) it is diminishingly expressed during B-cell activation and (ii) even if overexpressed, SMUG1 more appears to favour conventional repair of the uracil lesion than assist diversification. The distinction between UNG and overexpressed SMUG1 regarding the balance between antibody diversification and non-mutagenic repair of the U:G lesion could reflect the association of UNG (but not SMUG1) with sites of DNA replication.     

Direct interaction between XRCC1 and UNG2 facilitates rapid repair of uracil in DNA by XRCC1 complexes

Uracil-DNA glycosylase, UNG2, interacts with PCNA and initiates post-replicative base excision repair (BER) of uracil in DNA. The DNA repair protein XRCC1 also co-localizes and physically interacts with PCNA. However, little is known about whether UNG2 and XRCC1 directly interact and participate in a same complex for repair of uracil in replication foci. Here, we examine localization pattern of these proteins in live and fixed cells and show that UNG2 and XRCC1 are likely in a common complex in replication foci. Using pull-down experiments we demonstrate that UNG2 directly interacts with the nuclear localization signal-region (NLS) of XRCC1. Western blot and functional analysis of immunoprecipitates from whole cell extracts prepared from S-phase enriched cells demonstrate the presence of XRCC1 complexes that contain UNG2 in addition to separate XRCC1 and UNG2 associated complexes with distinct repair features. XRCC1 complexes performed complete repair of uracil with higher efficacy than UNG2 complexes. Based on these results, we propose a model for a functional role of XRCC1 in replication associated BER of uracil.     

Sequential and synergistic modification of human RPA stimulates chromosomal DNA repair

The activity of human replication protein A (RPA) in DNA replication and repair is regulated by phosphorylation of the middle RPA2 subunit. It has previously been shown that up to nine different N-terminal residues are modified in vivo and in response to genotoxic stress. Using a novel antibody against phospho-Ser(29), a moiety formed by cyclin-Cdk, we observed that RPA2 was phosphorylated during mitosis in nonstressed cells. Robust phosphorylation of Ser(29) was also seen in interphase cells following treatment with the DNA-damaging agent camptothecin, a rare example of stress stimulating the modification of a repair factor by cyclin-Cdk. RPA2 phosphorylation is regulated both in cis and trans. Cis-phosphorylation follows a preferred pathway. (That is, the initial modification of Ser(33) by ATR stimulates subsequent phosphorylation of Cdk sites Ser(23) and Ser(29)). These events then facilitate modification of Thr(21) and extreme N-terminal sites Ser(4) and Ser(8), probably by DNA-PK. Our data also indicate that the phosphorylation of one RPA molecule can influence the phosphorylation of other RPA molecules in trans. Cells in which endogenous RPA2 was "replaced" with a double S23A/S29A-RPA2 mutant were seen to have an abnormal cell cycle distribution both in normal and in stressed cells. Such cells also showed aberrant DNA damage-dependent RPA foci and had persistent staining of gammaH2AX following DNA damage. Our data indicate that RPA phosphorylation facilitates chromosomal DNA repair. We postulate that the RPA phosphorylation pattern provides a means to regulate the DNA repair pathway utilized.