Microspore embryogenesis in anther cultures of two Indian cultivars of Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.

Direct microspore-derived embryo formation in anther cultures of two cultivars of Brassica juncea was obtained. Preliminary culture of anthers at 35°C for 1–5 days prior to maintenance at 25°C stimulated embryogenesis. Embryogenesis was also stimulated by an initial culture at 5°C for 3 days. Analysis of squashed anthers revealed that approximately 10% of the microspores began dividing, but less than 1% developed into macroscopic embryos. All embryos transferred to embryo culture medium survived, but only 30% of these developed directly into normal plantlets. The androgenic plants were haploid (2n=18).     

Explant region-specific embryogenic competence and plant recovery inCamellia japonica

Summary The culture conditions for direct, indirect, and repetitive embryogenesis were established forCamellia japonica cv. Elegans and cv. Ville de Nantes. Direct embryo production from leaves averaged 15.3 embryos per responsive leaf on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) with 1.0 mg·liter^−1 N⁶-benzyladenine and 0.5 mg·liter^−1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Plantlet production was 7.1 (±1.5) plantlets per leaf. Direct embryo production from stems averaged 5.7 embryos per shoot, and 2.7 embryos per stem portion, on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg·liter^−1 N⁶-benzyladenine and 0.1 mg·liter^−1 indolbutyric acid (MS28). Conversion was only obtained after repetitive embryogenesis. Embryogenesis from leaf-derived callus occurred in all callus after transfer to MS/2–25 medium (half strength MS medium with 25 g·liter^−1 D-glucose) (production stage). Plantlet production was 16.3 (±3.6) plantlets per callus. Repetitive embryogenesis increased embryo population by 2.3- to 3.6-fold every 4 wk. Conversion of secondary embryos was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg·liter^−1 N⁶-benzyladenine, 0.2 mg·liter^−1 indolbutyric acid, 5 mg·liter^−1 gibberellic acid (MS56). Direct embryo formation from leaves, stems, and cotyledons, and embryogenic callus formation from leaves were restricted to specific regions of the explant.     

Embryogenesis and doubled haploid production from anther culture in gentian (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gentiana triflora</Emphasis>)

The overall goal of this study is to develop an anther culture system to produce doubled haploid (DH) lines of gentian (Gentiana triflora), an ornamental flowering plant, for use in an F1 hybrid breeding program. Embryogenesis was induced from anther cultures incubated on half-strength modified Lichter (NLN) medium containing a high concentration of sucrose (130 g/l) and subjected to heat shock treatment. Among the various parameters investigated, anthers collected from buds 9–12 mm in length induced the highest frequency of androgenesis. Moreover, among three genotypes tested, cvs. Ashiro-no-Aki and Ashiro-no-Natsu produced 21.3 and 3.7 embryos per 100 anthers, respectively, whereas, cv. Lovely-Ashiro failed to produce embryos. Among a total of 427 embryos transferred to a regeneration medium consisting of Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, 138 plants were regenerated. The ploidy levels of regenerants were determined by flow cytometry and chromosome counts, revealing the presence of 5% haploids, 25% diploids, and 70% triploids. Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis using the 6PS line obtained following self-pollination of the diploid plant obtained from anther culture confirmed that the diploid plant was indeed a DH.     

Haploid plants from in vitro anther culture of the leguminous tree,Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC) K. Hayne (Copper pod)

The development of haploid callus, embryos and plantlets from cultured anthers and the various factors affecting androgenesis in Peltophorum pterocarpum (Copper pod), a tropical legume tree is reported. A pretreatment of flower buds at moderate temperature of 14°C for 8 days was most effective for callus production. The colour of the anther was found to be a reliable and efficient indicator for identification of suitable stage of anther for culture. The frequency of anthers which produced callus and shoots was highest when anthers were cultured at mid or late-uninucleate stage. A high sucrose concentration of 10% is a specific media requirement for androgenesis. The haploid nature of the embryos, callus and regenerated plants (n=14) were confirmed by chromosome count.Abbreviations 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - KN kinetin - NAA naphthaleneacetic acid - BAP bezylaminopurine     

The frequency of embryogenic pollen grains is not increased by in vitro anther culture in Nicotiana tabacum L.

The numbers of embryogenic (S) grains present in in-situ mature anthers of Nicotiana tabacum L. were compared to the numbers of embryos and plantlets produced in cultured anthers excised at the optimal mitotic stage of development for anther culture. The Feulgen technique of staining embryos caused a considerable loss of grains from cultured anthers but this did not seriously affect the determination of the percentage of embryos present. In no instance did the numbers of embryos produced exceed the maximum number of S grains found, and the distributions of S grain and embryo frequencies in anthers were similar. In rare instances S grains which had undergone the first embryogenic division were observed in situ. The results indicate that all grains capable of embryogenesis are determined during early flower formation and that their number is not increased by in vitro culture.     

An improved method for dihaploid production in Nicotiana rustica through anther culture

Summary The efficiency of dihaploid production from anther culture in N. rustica has been improved by studying the effects of pretreatment temperature, pretreatment duration and initial anther stage on anther response, anther productivity and time to first plantlet production. Pretreatment was most effective on anthers at or around the stage of pollen mitosis. Pollen mitosis stage anthers pretreated at 9 °C for 15 days gave the best results. Both spontaneous and induced dihaploids were obtained. Small plantlets treated with 0.4% colchicine and 2% DMS solution for 5 h produced the maximum number of dihaploids (more than 50%). These considerable improvements in the efficiency of the techniques have made dihaploidy an attractive method for producing inbred lines in N. rustica. This will permit a large scale comparison of dihaploids with more conventional methods of inbreeding such as single seed descent and pedigree breeding.     

The influence of various physical parameters on anther culture of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica)

Embryo formation by cultured broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) anthers was best in the pH range of 5.5 to 5.8. Manipulation of the initial medium pH showed, however, that embryos could be recovered throughout the entire pH range tested. Experiments designed to test the influence of anther density on embryo production exhibited an apparent population effect. Comparison of anthers cultured with and without filaments showed a significantly lower level of embryo formation with filaments attached. The importance of anther orientation with the adaxial surface up was also demonstrated. Detailed studies of the effect of temperature on anther response showed the importance of 35°C treatments. Other temperatures and a variety of temperature manipulations were either comparatively ineffective or inhibitory. The duration of 35°C exposure required for optimal response varied widely between 18 and 48 h. Wide variation in plant to plant response was observed despite attempts to optimize the manipulation of physical parameters. Individual plants were identified that reliably formed many thousands of embryos, whereas other plants failed to form embryos under all tested conditions.     

The influence of several factors on the efficiency of androgenesis in carrot

The influence of cultivar, donor plant and culture procedure on the efficiency of androgenesis was studied in carrot anther culture. Experiments were carried out on five carrot cultivars: CxC 9900 F1, Lucky B F1, HCM, Beta III and Perfekcja, which were chosen because of their high carotene contents. Two procedures of anther culture were compared: (1) incubation in darkness for two weeks, followed by exposure to continuous light and transfer onto a fresh medium of the same composition; and (2) incubation in darkness until embryos appeared, without transfer onto a fresh medium. Temperature was +27 degrees C all the time. Genotype played an important role in the process of androgenesis in carrot anther culture.The efficiency was the highest in cv. HCM - 5.6 embryos per 100 anthers. Considerable differences in the capacity for androgenesis were observed between individual donor plants. The ratio of embryos obtained per 100 anthers for cv. HCM varied from 0.0 to 48.9. The second procedure of anther culture proved to be more efficient, cheaper and less complicated.     

Assay for doubled haploid sunflower (Helianthus annuus) plant production by androgenesis: fact or artifact? Part 1. In vitro anther culture

Sunflower anthers placed on solid medium developed calli and embryos after 12 days. Embryogenesis was improved by the addition of 0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) that alleviated anther and medium browning. As in other species, genotypic variability was an important parameter in the anther response and a medium genotype interaction was suggested with a different PVP effect depending on the genotype. Embryo germination was largely increased by the successive use of germination media with decreasing sucrose concentrations (10%6%3%). Histological examination of the anthers during the first ten days of culture showed that, under our conditions, the embryos were of somatic origin, arising directly from the anther wall on the outside or inside of the anther loculus, or indirectly from proliferating anther wall- or connective tissue-derived callus. Finally, the ploidy status of 78 embryo-derived plants was determined by Feulgen stain or flow cytometry: all plants were diploid (2n=34).Abbreviations PVP polyvinylpyrrolidone     

Cytological analysis of early microspore divisions leading to gametic embryo formation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus suber</Emphasis> L. anther cultures

The correlation between the phenologic stage of the inflorescence and the microspore development stage was studied. Cytological examinations of the development of microspores during in vitro anther culture of cork oak (Quercus suber L.), were carried out during the first four weeks of culture. To observe the division occurring in the microspores, anthers were taken randomly from the cultures after heat shock treatment and were stained with DAPI. Most of the anthers responding to a heat stress treatment contained 91 % vacuolated microspores, indicating that this developmental stage is responsive to embryogenesis induction in cork-oak microspores. After the heat shock treatment some cork-oak microspores were induced and initiated the embryogenic pathway with the occurrence of numerous symmetric mitosis, producing structures with two to ten or more nuclei. These lead to the formation of high numbers of multicellular cork-oak microspores (pro-embryos). Twenty-forty days after induction, small white globular and cotyledonal embryos were observed, which further developed root and shoot, regenerating plantlets.     

Doubled-haploid production in chickpea (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cicer arietinum</Emphasis> L.): role of stress treatments

This is the first report on the production of double-haploid chickpea embryos and regenerated plants through anther culture using Canadian cultivar CDC Xena (kabuli) and Australian cultivar Sonali (desi). Maximum anther induction rates were 69% for Sonali and 63% for CDC Xena. Under optimal conditions, embryo formation occurred within 15–20 days of culture initiation with 2.3 embryos produced per anther for CDC Xena and 2.0 embryos per anther for Sonali. For anther induction, the following stress treatments were used: (1) flower clusters were treated at 4°C for 4 days, (2) anthers were subjected to electric shock treatment of three exponentially decaying pulses of 50–400 V with 25 μF capacitance and 25 Ω resistance, (3) anthers were centrifuged at 168–1,509g for 2–15 min, and finally (4) anthers were cultured for 4 days in high-osmotic pressure (563 mmol) liquid medium. Anthers were then transferred to a solid embryo development medium and, 15–20 days later, embryo development was observed concomitant with a small amount of callus growth of 0.1–3 mm. Anther-derived embryos were regenerated on plant regeneration medium. Electroporation treatment of anthers enhanced root formation, which is often a major hurdle in legume regeneration protocols. Cytological studies using DAPI staining showed a wide range of ploidy levels from haploid to tetraploid in 10–30-day-old calli. Flow cytometric analysis of calli, embryos and regenerated plants showed haploid profiles and/or spontaneous doubling of the chromosomes during early regeneration stages.     

Anther culture of kale (Brassica oleracea L. convar.acephala (DC.) Alef.)

The pollen development and androgenic ability of 18 kale (Brassica oleracea convar.acephala) genotypes was observed during an anther culture study. Anther culture was successful in 6 of the genotypes and the highest yield obtained was 17 embryos per 100 anthers plated. Two stages of anther development were identified as being responsive to anther culture. The first and most responsive was that corresponding to the late uninucleated stage and the second to the late binucleated stage. These stages correspond with the onset of mitotic events in the microspores. Pollen viability was studied and low viability was noted which declined to zero after 9 days of anther culture. The initial viability level however was not clearly related to androgenic ability. The significance of the production of haploid and dihaploid kale genotypes in the study and breeding of resistance to clubroot is discussed.     

Enhancement of embryogenesis and plant regeneration from barley anther culture by low doses of gamma irradiation

Summary The effects of 0,5 and 10 Gy doses of gamma irradiation on the enhancement of embryogenesis and plant regeneration efficiency of three barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) genotypes, Igri, Arabi Abiad and AECS 76, were evaluated. Embryo yields at 5 and 10 Gy doses were significantly higher than those of the control (OGy). This effect was genotype-dependent. The most responsive genotype was Igri, with 592.8 embryos 32 anthers exposed to 10 Gy. However, despite a high embryo induction rate, the green plant regeneration rate was low. Arbi Abiad had a higher ability to generate green plants produced from, with 28. 13 plantlets obtained from 32 anthers at 10 Gy; irradiation had no significant effect on regeneration of Igri and AECS 76 genotypes. In general, the 10 Gy dose produced a much higher embryo yield than the 5 Gy dose. The root-tip chromosome number and the fertility of 298 regenerating green plants of cv. Igri revealed that 64% of the tested plants were spontaneously doubled haploids (DHs) and fertile.     

Segregation of genetic markers among plants regenerated from cultured anthers of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. ‘italica’)

Summary An experiment was conducted to determine critical factors in the recovery of embryos from cultured anthers of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) and to unambiguously distinguish whether embryos were of gametophytic origin. Among factors tested, genotype, genotype x anther developmental stage, and method of anther culture had a distinct impact on embryo recovery, whereas length of anther exposure to the culture medium did not. However, extreme heterogeneity of embryo emergence within and among replications precluded statistical contrasts. Among 762 plants derived from embryos of four independent cultivars, only one was determined to be of sporophytic origin by use of heterozygous codominant isozyme markers. Two of the cultivars tested were heterozygous at two or more loci. While segregation among loci was consistent with previously published linkage data, segregation of alleles was consistently non-random. In all of seven separate cases involving four cultivars, a significant over-representation of the fast-migrating class was observed. It appears, therefore, that populations of plants derived from microspores within cultured anthers of broccoli do not necessarily represent a random gametic array, and that care must be exercised in breeding and genetic applications.     

Non-zygotic embryos of Brassica napus L. contain embryo-specific storage proteins

The storage-protein content of non-zygotic and zygotic embryos of B. napus was compared, using antibodies to guantitate 12S storage protein in extracts by rocket immunoelectrophoresis. Non-zygotic embryos were induced from microspores in anther culture and on the hypocotyls of zygotic embryos in culture. All embryo-like structures were found to contain 12S storage protein, whereas preculture anthers, anthers from which embryos had been removed, and regenerated shoots did not have detectable 12S storage protein. In zygotic embryos, 12S storage protein was first detected at the cotyledon stage, but microsporic embryos contained storage protein at the globular and heart stages. Storage protein levels in microsporic and hypocotyl embryos were low relative to those in zygotic embryos. The largest microsporic embryo had a storage protein concentration of 13 g mg^-1 fresh weight, almost 10 times lower than a mature zygotic embryo. Thus, although storage proteins are present in both zygotic and non-zygotic embryos, the timing and extent of accumulation differ.     

A study of factors affecting embryo yields from anther culture of cabbage

In cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), a thermal shock treatment of 24 h at 35 °C at the start of the culture period resulted in higher embryos per 100 anthers (30.0) compared to a treatment of 48 h. Similarly , a chilling treatment of 24 h at 4 °C resulted in a higher embryo yield (6.0) per 100 anthers compared to a treatment of 48 h. However, the embryo yields were significantly higher (p> 0.01) in thermal shock than chilling treatments in all experiments. Treatments of 6 days at either 35 °C or 4 °C gave no embryos. The most responsive cultivar was the F₁ hybrid , Hercules, in all experiments. Although anther culture was successful in the other genotypes, the open pollinated ones, the highest number of embryo yields per 100 anthers was obtained in the hybrid. High temperature treatment before culture had a beneficial effect on the embryo yields. The responsiveness of anthers to addition of increasing concentration of silver nitrate (AgN0₃) (the ethylene inhibitor) to the culture medium, showed a progressive increase in the embryo yields in all the genotypes. Since embryos were also formed in the absence of silver nitrate, probably, due to a greater genotype × medium interaction, it is noted that the presence of silver nitrate in the medium may not be essential for cabbage anther culture as reported earlier. The findings of this study may be recommended for large production of cabbage embryos in culture.     

Induced androgenesis in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). II. Factors affecting induction of androgenesis

The influence on androgenesis of donor plant growth conditions, anther size and developmental stage of the microspore, medium composition and different anther treatments prior to culture was investigated in L. esculentum Mill. cv Roma and its hybrids. Growth conditions of donor plants affected the induction of tomato androgenesis. Anthers isolated from plants grown in the greenhouse during winter at high humidity and in short days possessed higher androgenetic ability than those grown in the field. The physiological state and age of the donor plants also influenced the processes investigated. Regarding the developmental stage of microspores, the period from prophase to telophase II is optimal for tomato anther implantation. More then 20 culture media were tested. Two, based on Murashige and Skoog medium were selected as most favourable for callus induction, organogenesis and regeneration. The effect on callus induction of 2ip in combination with indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) was greater than that of zeatin and IAA. Zeatin promoted entire plant regeneration. A highly significant interaction between genotype and medium was observed. Temperature and gamma ray treatments of anthers enhanced callus production, shoot formation and plant regeneration. Treatments at 4 °C (48 h) and 10 °C (9 days) stimulated these processes. Combined treatment of anthers with 4 Gy and 10 °C for 9 days was the most efficient. Received: 5 September 1997 / Revision recieved: 5 June 1998 / Accepted: 15 June 1998     

Anther Factor(s) in Barley Anther Culture

The effects of anther tissues were studied systematically on microspores forming multicellular units and furthermore on pollen callus formation in the anther culture of Hordeum vulgare (cv. Sabarlis). Anther productivity was found to be greatly enhanced by use of medium previously conditioned by anthers. In 15 experiments observed, anthers produced 26 times on average more calli in the conditioned medium than in control, in a few cases, even more than 80 times more calli formed. According to this, the authors supposed that cultured anthers released some components, anther factor (s) (AF), which is important to androgenesis in the culture. To achieve high yields of callus, culture was restricted to anthers which had been subpected to cold pretreatment. The temperature stress could not be replaced by the AF. However, for conditioning medium, anthers at binuclear stage were found to be more effective than the test anthers either with or without the pretreatment. Anthers from other 8 barley varieties were also effective for conditioning, as the difference of anther productivity still existed in the culture with conditioned medium between various genotypes tested. Anther response and callus yield were increased in both the culture of anthers at mid and late-uninuclear stage by use of conditioned medium. AF interacted synergistically with m-inositol. Cytological observation showed that AF increased apparently the formation of MPGs, while m-inositol mainly stimulated callus formation from MPGs. To some extent, the effect of exogenous hormone(s) could be replaced by AF. The anther response and pollen callus yield could be much enhanced by increasing anther inoculation density, which also raised the AF level in the culture. Thus, by use of the temperature stress prior to anther culture and culture of test anthers in conditioned medium with m-inositol, or at higher inoculation density, a very high production of pollen callus could be obtained in barley anther culture. For meeting the more specialized requirements of less responsive species or genopypes, the principles given here may be provide some basic information.     

Factors affecting variability in anther culture and in conversion of androgenic embryos ofSolanum phureja

The variation for embryo production in anther ofSolanum phureja was examined as a function of maximum greenhouse temperature prior to bud harvest and innate responsiveness among anthers within a bud. Four clones ofS. phuyreja were grown in a greenhouse under a 16-h photoperiod. The temperature was monitored continuously. Buds (60 per day on 10 days) were collected and the anthers cultured in two groups of five flasks (30 anthers per flask). In the first group, each flask contained the 30 anthers from six buds; in the second group, each flask contained one anther from each of 30 buds. Significantly smaller coefficients of variation were observed for the second group, suggesting that variation for embryogenic capcity among buds was greater than that among anthers within a bud. Variation in embryo yield as a function of greenhouse temperature was examined by stepwise regression analysis. Embryogenic capacity of one clone was adversely affected by high temperatures (31–37°C) that occurred two and seven days before bud harvest. However, similarly high temperatures appeared to enhance the androgenic response of another clone. Conversion of anther-derived embryos over three subcultures to fresh regeneration medium was examined as a function of anther donor or clone, cold pretreatment of embryos, and morphological classification of embryos. Only clonal origin significantly affected conversion rate which ranged from 12.5% to 46.0%. Conversion rate declined on each serial subculture.Abbreviations BA N⁶-benzyladenine - GA₃ gibberellic acid, IAA-indole-3-acetic acid     

A simple wheat haploid and doubled haploid production system using anther culture

Summary Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) haploids and doubled haploids have been used in breeding programs and genetic studies. Wheat haploids and doubled haploids via anther culture are usually produced by a multiple step culture procedure. We improved a wheat haploid and doubled haploid production system via anther culture in which plants are produced from microspore-derived embryos using one medium and one culture environment. In the improved protocol, tillers of donor plants were pretreated at 4°C for 1–2 wk before anthers were plated on a modified 85D12 basal medium with phenylacetic acid (PAA) and zeatin and cultured at 30°C with a 12-h daylength (43 μEs⁻¹m⁻²) in an incubator. Microspore-derived embryos developed in 2–3 wk and the plants were produced 3–4 wk after anther plating. In the improved system, as much as 53% of the anthers of Pavon 76 were responsive with multiple embryos. For plant regeneration, as many as 22 green and 25 albino plants were produced from 100 anthers. Sixty-five green plants were grown to maturity and 32 (49%) plants were fertile and produced seeds (indicating spontaneous chromosome doubling) while 33 plants did not produce seed. Of five Nebraska breeding lines tested using the protocol, NE96675 was very responsive and the other lines less so, indicating that the protocol is genotype-dependent.