AMS Radiocarbon Dating of Large Za Baobabs (Adansonia za) of Madagascar

The article reports the radiocarbon investigation of Anzapalivoro, the largest za baobab (Adansonia za) specimen of Madagascar and of another za, namely the Big cistern baobab. Several wood samples collected from the large inner cavity and from the outer part/exterior of the tree were investigated by AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) radiocarbon dating. For samples collected from the cavity walls, the age values increase with the distance into the wood up to a point of maximum age, after which the values decrease toward the outer part. This anomaly of age sequences indicates that the inner cavity of Anzapalivoro is a false cavity, practically an empty space between several fused stems disposed in a ring-shaped structure. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was 780 ± 30 bp, which corresponds to a calibrated age of around 735 yr. Dating results indicate that Anzapalivoro has a closed ring-shaped structure, which consists of 5 fused stems that close a false cavity. The oldest part of the biggest za baobab has a calculated age of 900 years. We also disclose results of the investigation of a second za baobab, the Big cistern baobab, which was hollowed out for water storage. This specimen, which consists of 4 fused stems, was found to be around 260 years old.     

Searching for the Oldest Baobab of Madagascar: Radiocarbon Investigation of Large Adansonia rubrostipa Trees

We extended our research on the architecture, growth and age of trees belonging to the genus Adansonia, by starting to investigate large individuals of the most widespread Malagasy species. Our research also intends to identify the oldest baobabs of Madagascar. Here we present results of the radiocarbon investigation of the two most representative Adansonia rubrostipa (fony baobab) specimens, which are located in south-western Madagascar, in the Tsimanampetsotse National Park. We found that the fony baobab called “Grandmother” consists of 3 perfectly fused stems of different ages. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was found to be 1136 ± 16 BP. We estimated that the oldest part of this tree, which is mainly hollow, has an age close to 1,600 yr. This value is comparable to the age of the oldest Adansonia digitata (African baobab) specimens. By its age, the Grandmother is a major candidate for the oldest baobab of Madagascar. The second investigated specimen, called the “polygamous baobab”, consists of 6 partially fused stems of different ages. According to dating results, this fony baobab is 1,000 yr old. This research is the first investigation of the structure and age of Malagasy baobabs.     

African Baobabs with False Inner Cavities: The Radiocarbon Investigation of the Lebombo Eco Trail Baobab

The article reports the radiocarbon investigation results of the Lebombo Eco Trail tree, a representative African baobab from Mozambique. Several wood samples collected from the large inner cavity and from the outer part of the tree were investigated by AMS radiocarbon dating. According to dating results, the age values of all samples increase from the sampling point with the distance into the wood. For samples collected from the cavity walls, the increase of age values with the distance into the wood (up to a point of maximum age) represents a major anomaly. The only realistic explanation for this anomaly is that such inner cavities are, in fact, natural empty spaces between several fused stems disposed in a ring-shaped structure. We named them false cavities. Several important differences between normal cavities and false cavities are presented. Eventually, we dated other African baobabs with false inner cavities. We found that this new architecture enables baobabs to reach large sizes and old ages. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was 1425 ± 24 BP, which corresponds to a calibrated age of 1355 ± 15 yr. The dating results also show that the Lebombo baobab consists of five fused stems, with ages between 900 and 1400 years; these five stems build the complete ring. The ring and the false cavity closed 800–900 years ago. The results also indicate that the stems stopped growing toward the false cavity over the past 500 years.     

Spawning,maturity, growth and movement of Platycephalus fuscus (Cuvier, 1829) (Platycephalidae): fishery management considerations

The dusky flathead (Platycephalus fuscus) is an important teleost harvested by recreational and commercial fishers throughout its endemic distribution along eastern Australia. This study indicates that the species has an extended spawning period throughout the austral summer, with females in spawning condition occurring in lower estuarine and coastal waters. Total length (L₅₀) and age (A₅₀) at which 50% (±1 SE) of the population was mature was 31.72 (±1.08) cm TL and 1.22 (±0.44) years for males and 56.75 (±0.60) cm TL and 4.55 (±0.13) years for females. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters differed significantly between sexes; females grew faster and attained a greater maximum TL and age than males. The largest female was 98.5 cm TL (7.5 kg), and the oldest 16 years, whereas the largest male was 61.5 cm TL (1.58 kg) and 11 years of age. A tag‐and‐release study identified the exchange of sub‐adult and mature‐sized individuals among estuaries. Determinations of length‐based management regulations for the species are compounded by the large gender‐based differences in growth and length‐at‐maturity. Current minimum legal lengths of 30–40 cm TL protect approximately 3–9% of the female spawning population. Alternative management options, including harvest slot sizes, need to be investigated and tested.     

DNA methylation age is associated with mortality in a longitudinal Danish twin study

An epigenetic profile defining the DNA methylation age (DNAm age) of an individual has been suggested to be a biomarker of aging, and thus possibly providing a tool for assessment of health and mortality. In this study, we estimated the DNAm age of 378 Danish twins, age 30–82 years, and furthermore included a 10‐year longitudinal study of the 86 oldest‐old twins (mean age of 86.1 at follow‐up), which subsequently were followed for mortality for 8 years. We found that the DNAm age is highly correlated with chronological age across all age groups (r = 0.97), but that the rate of change of DNAm age decreases with age. The results may in part be explained by selective mortality of those with a high DNAm age. This hypothesis was supported by a classical survival analysis showing a 35% (4–77%) increased mortality risk for each 5‐year increase in the DNAm age vs. chronological age. Furthermore, the intrapair twin analysis revealed a more‐than‐double mortality risk for the DNAm oldest twin compared to the co‐twin and a ‘dose–response pattern’ with the odds of dying first increasing 3.2 (1.05–10.1) times per 5‐year DNAm age difference within twin pairs, thus showing a stronger association of DNAm age with mortality in the oldest‐old when controlling for familial factors. In conclusion, our results support that DNAm age qualifies as a biomarker of aging.     

Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: ancient Sacred Lotus from China

A 1,288 ± 271-yr-old (1,350 ± 220 yr BP, radiocarbon age) seed of Sacred Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) from an ancient lake bed at Pulantien, Liaoning Province, China, has been germinated and subsequently radiocarbon dated. This is the oldest demonstrably viable and directly dated seed ever reported, the preserved relict of one of the early crops of lotus cultivated by Buddhists at Pulantien after introduction of the religion into the region prior to 372 A.D. A small portion of the dry pericarp of a second lotus fruit from the same locale has been dated as being 332 ± 135-yr-old (270 ± 60 yr BP, radiocarbon age) by accelerator mass spectroscopy at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This polycentenarian seed not only germinated but is still growing (since March, 1994). Of six old lotus fruits tested, two-thirds germinated, almost all in fewer than 4 d, as rapidly as fruits harvested from the progeny of Pulantien Sacred Lotus plants (under cultivation by the National Park Service in Washington, DC), and more rapidly than fresh fruits of Yellow Lotus [N. lutea (Willd.) Pers.]. Growth of the old lotus is robust: rhizome formation and leaf emergence at rhizome nodes are more rapid than those of the Pulantien progeny, although the leaf width is smaller. Activity of the protein-repair enzyme L-isoaspartyl methyltransferase in the old lotus seed is persistent during germination and is as robust as that in the progeny, and the degree of aspartyl racemization in proteins of the two groups of plants is minimal and essentially identical. The six dated ancient Sacred Lotus fruits range in age from 95 to 1,288 yr (with a mean age of 595 ± 380 yr), evidently reflecting their production, deposition, and preservation at varying times during the intervening millennium.     

Initial establishment and regeneration processes of an outlying isolated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus crenata</Emphasis> Blume forest stand in the northernmost boundary of its range in Hokkaido,northern Japan

We investigated initial establishment and regeneration of an outlying isolated Fagus crenata forest stand at the northernmost boundary of its range in Hokkaido, northern Japan. The study site was located in the Sannosuke beech forest (42°46′48″N, 140°23′43″E), a representative outlying beech stand beyond its continuous range. A rectangular 0.75 ha plot was established on a southwest-facing slope and divided into 300 square sub-plots of 25 m². Within each sub-plot, stems over 5 cm in diameter at breast height (DBH) were identified and measured. Furthermore, the location of stems over 10 cm in DBH (canopy stem) was recorded within each sub-plot, and their increment core samples were extracted. Wood from fallen logs was sampled to estimate the species composition of the coarse woody debris. Micro-relief of the plot was investigated by leveling with compasses for a 2.5 m × 2.5 m grid system. In the plot, the population of F. crenata was divided into three sub-populations by their frequency distribution of age. The oldest sub-population, over 121 years old, had been established in small-localized gap in the plot. The sub-population between 81 and 120 years old and the sub-population less than 80 years old were regenerated after a landslide and windthrow in a 1954 typhoon, respectively. Furthermore, dominant species in the plot shifted from Quercus mongolica var. grosseserrata to F. crenata. Consequently, regeneration of F. crenata, i.e., expansion of forest stands, at the northernmost boundary of its range was primarily dependent on episodic natural disturbance, which may be responsible for the reduction of their migration rate in Hokkaido, northern Japan.     

Late Holocene occupation of Gentoo Penguins (Pygoscelis papua) on Byers Peninsula, Livingston Island, Antarctica

We report excavations of an abandoned penguin colony on Byers Peninsula, Livingston Island, Antarctica, in austral summer 2008/2009. Nine abandoned pebble mounds were located on Devils Point, near an active Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) colony of about 3,000 nests, at an elevation of 40–45 m above sea level. Three of the nine mounds were excavated to recover organic remains for radiocarbon and ancient DNA analyses; two additional mounds were probed to obtain tissue samples for additional dating. All radiocarbon dates were corrected for the marine-carbon reservoir effect using a ΔR of 700 ± 50 years. Calibrated 2-sigma ranges in calendar years before present (B.P.) on 23 samples of egg membrane and bone provided an overall range of 40–1,150 B.P., with most of the dates falling between 225 and 465 B.P. Ancient DNA analysis confirmed that the tissues recovered from these excavations represent Gentoo Penguin. One radiocarbon date from the active Gentoo Penguin colony indicated an age of 285–480 B.P. for the initiation of this current occupation and corresponding in age with most of the abandoned mounds. Although geologic evidence indicates that Byers Peninsula has been ice free for at least 3,000 years, these results indicate that penguin occupation lagged behind deglaciation by over 2,000 years. Small numbers of Chinstrap Penguins (P. antarctica) also occupy the same breeding colonies as Gentoo Penguins at Byers Peninsula, but their absence in the ancient sediments suggests that they have only recently colonized this area.     

Contribution of corticular photosynthesis to bud development in African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) and Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) seedlings

The African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) and castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) are drought resistant green-stemmed succulent plants which grow in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Photosynthesis in the stems of green-stemmed plants is known to contribute to plant carbon gain especially during leafless periods. To study the contribution of stem photosynthesis in stem succulent plants, the height and stem diameter of baobab and castor bean plants grown in the greenhouse were measured. The plants were completely defoliated and subjected to different treatments: Watered with open stems (WO), watered and stems covered with aluminium foil (WC) to achieve 100% light exclusion, drought and open (DO) and drought and covered (DC). Stem coverage with aluminium foil resulted in a higher stem height and diameter during drought for baobab with similar trends seen in castor bean. Light exclusion resulted in a significantly lower bud DW production and enrichment in ¹³C in bud dry matter of castor bean and in stem dry matter of baobab. These show that corticular photosynthesis contributes in carbon gain in these species.     

Wood structure and function change with maturity: Age of the vascular cambium is associated with xylem changes in current‐year growth

Xylem vessel structure changes as trees grow and mature. Age‐ and development‐related changes in xylem structure are likely related to changes in hydraulic function. We examined whether hydraulic function, including hydraulic conductivity and vulnerability to water‐stress‐induced xylem embolism, changed over the course of cambial development in the stems of 17 tree species. We compared current‐year growth of young (1–4 years), intermediate (2–7 years), and older (3–10 years) stems occurring in series along branches. Diffuse and ring porous species were examined, but nearly all species produced only diffuse porous xylem in the distal branches that were examined irrespective of their mature xylem porosity type. Vessel diameter and length increased with cambial age. Xylem became both more conductive and more cavitation resistant with cambial age. Ring porous species had longer and wider vessels and xylem that had higher conductivity and was more vulnerable to cavitation; however, these differences between porosity types were not present in young stem samples. Understanding plant hydraulic function and architecture requires the sampling of multiple‐aged tissues because plants may vary considerably in their xylem structural and functional traits throughout the plant body, even over relatively short distances and closely aged tissues.     

Partial purification and kinetic characterization of mushroom stem polyphenoloxidase and determination of its storage stability in different lyophilized forms

Monophenolase (1011 ± 626 U/g AP) and diphenolase activities (5163 ± 3059 U/g AP) of PPO in acetone powders (APs) of different mushroom stems varied considerably. However, the limited variation of average dipenolase (L-DOPA) to monophenolase (L-tyrosine) activity ratio (5.4 ± 0.7) in crude extracts showed the homogeneity of PPO from different mushroom stems. The change in extraction material or partial purification method (ammonium sulfate or acetone precipitation) did not affect the temperature stability, temperature and pH dependency and K_m of monophenolase activity considerably. However, some changes were observed in pH stability and substrate specificity of PPO in different parties of mushroom stems. The most important aspects of mushroom stem PPO are its lower diphenolase to monophenolase activity ratio than mushroom cap PPO, low temperature dependency of activity between 25 and 40 °C (E_a = 30 kJ/mol), broad optimum pH between 6 and 8, but lack of activity pH ≤5, and ability to use phloridzin as substrate. The mushroom stem PPOs partially purified and lyophilized by using sucrose, dextran or alginate showed moderate to high stability at −18 °C for 6–6.5 months. Thus, the mushroom stems obtained as a waste material during mushroom processing may be used as a more homogenous source than whole mushrooms to obtain PPO used for different industrial, clinical or research purposes.     

Superoxide signaling in perivascular adipose tissue promotes age‐related artery stiffness

We tested the hypothesis that superoxide signaling within aortic perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) contributes to large elastic artery stiffening in old mice. Young (4–6 months), old (26–28 months), and old treated with 4‐Hydroxy‐2,2,6,6‐tetramethylpiperidine 1‐oxyl (TEMPOL), a superoxide scavenger (1 mm in drinking water for 3 weeks), male C57BL6/N mice were studied. Compared with young, old had greater large artery stiffness assessed by aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV, 436 ± 9 vs. 344 ± 5 cm s^‐1) and intrinsic mechanical testing (3821 ± 427 vs. 1925 ± 271 kPa) (both P < 0.05). TEMPOL treatment in old reversed both measures of arterial stiffness. Aortic PVAT superoxide production was greater in old (P < 0.05 vs. Y), which was normalized with TEMPOL. Compared with young, old controls had greater pro‐inflammatory proteins in PVAT‐conditioned media (P < 0.05). Young recipient mice transplanted with PVAT from old compared with young donors for 8 weeks had greater aPWV (409 ± 7 vs. 342 ± 8 cm s^‐1) and intrinsic mechanical properties (3197 ± 647 vs. 1889 ± 520 kPa) (both P < 0.05), which was abolished with TEMPOL supplementation in old donors. Tissue‐cultured aortic segments from old in the presence of PVAT had greater mechanical stiffening compared with old cultured in the absence of PVAT and old with PVAT and TEMPOL (both, P < 0.05). In addition, PVAT‐derived superoxide was associated with arterial wall hypertrophy and greater adventitial collagen I expression with aging that was attenuated by TEMPOL. Aging or TEMPOL treatment did not affect blood pressure. Our findings provide evidence for greater age‐related superoxide production and pro‐inflammatory proteins in PVAT, and directly link superoxide signaling in PVAT to large elastic artery stiffness.     

The persistence of the snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea) in Dronning Maud Land (Antarctica) for over 37,000?years

Two samples of snow petrel Pagodroma nivea mumiyo (solidified stomach oil) from Heimefrontfjella (74°34′36″S, 11°13′24″W) in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, were radiocarbon dated at 37,400 ± 1,500 and 3,120 ± 70 years old (dates are corrected for the ‘reservoir effect’). The age of the older sample provides further evidence that snow petrel colonies have existed in the mountain peaks of Dronning Maud Land since before the last glacial maximum (approx. 20,000–16,000 years ago). This finding also pushes back the estimated timing of establishment of snow petrel breeding colonies in this part of the continent by several thousand years. The variation in the accumulation rates of these two samples (1.6 and 35.2 mm per millennium, respectively) supports previous observations that mumiyo accumulation rates are highly variable and probably relate to site-specific factors affecting accumulation and degradation of the oil. Studies that help us understand historical bird population distributions in continental Antarctica can significantly aid the development and refinement of models that explain glacial advancement and retreat, the relationship between sea ice and population viability and, perhaps, predict species responses to future climate shifts.     

The Bentzen-Kaufmann Cave Site 48 SH 301

Abstract

A small cave in northeastern Wyoming yielded a number of bone fragments and artifacts representing an intermittent cultural deposition since the Early Period. A radiocarbon age of 6975 ± 275 years was obtained for one of the oldest components in the site.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of the endangered ripon barbel,Barbus altianalis (Boulenger, 1900) in Lake Victoria catchment,Kenya based on mitochondrial DNA sequences

Approximately 850 bp of the mitochondrial control region was used to assess the genetic diversity, population structure and demographic expansion of the endangered cyprinid Barbus altianalis, a species known to be potamodramous in the Lake Victoria drainage system. The 196 samples taken from the four main rivers draining the Lake Victoria catchment (Nzoia, Yala, Nyando and Sondu–Miriu) yielded 49 mitochondrial DNA haplotypes; 83.7% thereof were private haplotypes restricted to particular rivers. The overall mean haplotype diversity was high (0.93663 ± 0.008) and ranged between 0.566 (Sondu – Miriu) and 0.944 (Nzoia). The overall mean nucleotide diversity was low (0.01322 ± 0.00141), ranging from 0.0342 (Sondu – Miriu) to 0.0267 (Nzoia). Population differentiation tests revealed strong and highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) segregation of populations in the four river basins. F_ST values among the four river‐based populations ranged from 0.05202 to 0.44352. The samples formed two main haplotype networks based on a 95% parsimony criterion, each exhibiting a strong signature of past population expansion. The smaller network was restricted to the River Nzoia, whereas the larger network contained representatives from all four rivers; within this the central haplotypes were found in more than one river, whereas the peripheral haplotypes tended to be river‐specific. The degree of population differentiation and the number of river‐specific haplotypes are too high to be explained by recent anthropogenic impacts alone and suggest that the species has probably existed in the Lake Victoria catchment as two populations: the now ‘extinct’ migratory population and the extant river restricted non‐migratory populations.     

Changes of carbon and nitrogen metabolites in white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) of contrasted growth phenotypes

The present study documents the changes occurring at the biochemical level in white spruce trees (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) with contrasted growth phenotypes during the summer period. Full-siblings of tall versus small spruces were grown under controlled conditions at constant day/night temperatures (24/15°C) and exposed to a decreasing photoperiod (15.7–12.2 h) simulating natural photoperiod reduction during the summer in eastern Canada. Growth parameters (stem height and tree biomass) were determined and non structural carbohydrates, soluble proteins and amino acids were quantified in current-year needles and stem, oldest stem and roots from mid-July until the end of September 2006. Sucrose was the main soluble sugar found in all organs, but its concentrations did not significantly change during the summer. In contrast, starch concentrations rapidly declined by the end of the experiment, especially in needles and stems. Both sucrose and starch did not generally differ between growth phenotypes. Total soluble protein significantly accumulated by mid-August (14.4 h of photoperiod) in small trees. Arginine and glutamine were the most abundant amino acids found in spruce organs, and their concentrations strongly increased at 14.4 h of photoperiod, especially in small trees. Our results highlight marked differences in nitrogen metabolism in late summer between contrasted growth phenotypes, especially for arginine, an amino acid typically associated with growth arrest and nitrogen reserve in perennial species. They also reveal that old stems and roots are important storage organs of organic reserves.     

How far bowalization affects phytodiversity,life forms and plant morphology in Sub‐humid tropic in West Africa

Bowal or ferricrete, the final of land degradation, occurred only in tropical region. This study aimed at assessing the effects of bowalization on phytodiversity, life forms and morphological response of plant species using Combretum nigricans Leprieur ex Guill. & Perr. as a case study. Morphological parameters (height, number of stems, number of branches, diameter at breast height and crown diameter) of C. nigricans were determined in the sub‐humid zone of Benin. Plant communities were determined according to Multi‐Response Permutation Procedures analysis. Plant communities were more diversified on sand‐clay and concretion soils (control) compared with those described on bowal. C. nigricans developed more stems (3.6 ± 1.4 stems vs. 1.3 ± 0.4 stems), more branches (5.9 ± 2.4 branches vs. 3.2 ± 0.6 branches) and large crown diameter (5 ± 1.48 m vs. 3.4 ± 1.2 m) on bowal than on sand‐clay soil. The best adapted life forms on bowal were therophytes. Bowalization induced loss of phytodiversity, changes in species life forms and provoked local adaptation of tree species.     

PRICKLE DISTRIBUTION IN ARALIA SPINOSA (ARALIACEAE)

The density of Aralia spinosa prickles varied with the age and architectural position of annual increments. Prickles were most common on young (1–4 years old, 2–3 m tall), unbranched stems. Prickles were less common on branches and were absent on inflorescences. Ramets that grew as sprouts after injury had more and longer prickles than ramets that had not arisen in this way. Leaf prickles were also more common on the leaves of trunk annual increments than on the leaves of branch annual increments. As with stem prickles, leaf prickles were more common on the leaves of stems that had sprouted after cutting than on the leaves of ramets that had not been previously cut. As bark developed, stem prickles were lost at a rate of about 10% per year. While dense prickles characterized young individuals, older individuals (>15 years old) had very few prickles.     

Prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal nematode infestation of horses,donkeys and mules in tropical,dry and temperate regions in Mexico

The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in horses, donkeys and mules and its associations with age, sex and climatic factors (derived from satellite data) to identify the potential risk factors of different climate regions in four Mexican states. From May 2017 to April 2018, a total of 560 farm owners or managers answered the questionnaire, and the data were used to establish three Köppen climate classes (tropical, dry, temperate). The overall prevalence of GIN parasites in equines was 77.9% (436 out of 560). The highest percentage of GIN was detected in mules (87.5%). In addition, the highest prevalence among the climate regions was found in the temperate climate (79.9%). The identified nematodes were strongyle type (77.9%), Parascaris equorum (5.7%), Strongyloides (0.7%) and Oxyuris equi (2.9%). The highest mean value of strongylid eggs per g faeces was found in the dry climate (632.6 ± 96.8), followed by that in the tropical climate (518.3 ± 49.7) and temperate climate (383.8 ± 30.2); however, a similar prevalence was observed between different climate regions. Age and sex were identified as risk factors for high shedding of strongyle eggs: the odds ratios for higher shedding intensities were 3.858 for geldings compared to mares, 2.602 for 6–10-year-old equines and 3.597 for ≤16-year-olds compared to young equines (≤5 years old).     

New data on the Late Mousterian in Mediterranean France: First radiocarbon (AMS) dates at Saint-Marcel Cave (Ardèche)

This article presents new accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates of cutmarked ungulate remains from one of the uppermost archaeological layers (f) at the Grotte de Saint-Marcel, Ardèche, France. This site is situated in a key location regarding population dispersal and potential interaction between Neanderthals and modern humans, as it lies at the crossroads of two main routes of passage. Attributing the upper sequence of this site to a precise chronological period within the Mousterian was difficult until now. Previous conventional ¹⁴C analyses done on bulk samples over twenty years ago were considered too young (23,000–30,000 BP). Our new AMS radiocarbon results give two statistically identical dates of 37,850 ± 550 BP and 37,850 ± 600 BP, thus confirming the Late Mousterian attribution of the upper levels of this site. A third date overlaps them at two standard deviations. These are among the very few chronometric dates available for the Mousterian (especially its late phases) in Mediterranean France. The Late Mousterian of this zone, a key region in recent debates about late Neanderthal behaviour, is discussed in light of these results.