Salinity Adaptation and the Contribution of Parental Environmental Effects in Medicago truncatula

High soil salinity negatively influences plant growth and yield. Some taxa have evolved mechanisms for avoiding or tolerating elevated soil salinity, which can be modulated by the environment experienced by parents or offspring. We tested the contribution of the parental and offspring environments on salinity adaptation and their potential underlying mechanisms. In a two-generation greenhouse experiment, we factorially manipulated salinity concentrations for genotypes of Medicago truncatula that were originally collected from natural populations that differed in soil salinity. To compare population level adaptation to soil salinity and to test the potential mechanisms involved we measured two aspects of plant performance, reproduction and vegetative biomass, and phenological and physiological traits associated with salinity avoidance and tolerance. Saline-origin populations had greater biomass and reproduction under saline conditions than non-saline populations, consistent with local adaptation to saline soils. Additionally, parental environmental exposure to salt increased this difference in performance. In terms of environmental effects on mechanisms of salinity adaptation, parental exposure to salt spurred phenological differences that facilitated salt avoidance, while offspring exposure to salt resulted in traits associated with greater salt tolerance. Non-saline origin populations expressed traits associated with greater growth in the absence of salt while, for saline adapted populations, the ability to maintain greater performance in saline environments was also associated with lower growth potential in the absence of salt. Plastic responses induced by parental and offspring environments in phenology, leaf traits, and gas exchange contribute to salinity adaptation in M. truncatula. The ability of plants to tolerate environmental stress, such as high soil salinity, is likely modulated by a combination of parental effects and within-generation phenotypic plasticity, which are likely to vary in populations from contrasting environments.     

High Tolerance to Salinity and Herbivory Stresses May Explain the Expansion of Ipomoea Cairica to Salt Marshes

Background

Invasive plants are often confronted with heterogeneous environments and various stress factors during their secondary phase of invasion into more stressful habitats. A high tolerance to stress factors may allow exotics to successfully invade stressful environments. Ipomoea cairica, a vigorous invader in South China, has recently been expanding into salt marshes.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To examine why this liana species is able to invade a stressful saline environment, we utilized I. cairica and 3 non-invasive species for a greenhouse experiment. The plants were subjected to three levels of salinity (i.e., watered with 0, 4 and 8 g L⁻¹ NaCl solutions) and simulated herbivory (0, 25 and 50% of the leaf area excised) treatments. The relative growth rate (RGR) of I. cairica was significantly higher than the RGR of non-invasive species under both stress treatments. The growth performance of I. cairica was not significantly affected by either stress factor, while that of the non-invasive species was significantly inhibited. The leaf condensed tannin content was generally lower in I. cairica than in the non-invasive I. triloba and Paederia foetida. Ipomoea cairica exhibited a relatively low resistance to herbivory, however, its tolerance to stress factors was significantly higher than either of the non-invasive species.

Conclusions/Significance

This is the first study examining the expansion of I. cairica to salt marshes in its introduced range. Our results suggest that the high tolerance of I. cairica to key stress factors (e.g., salinity and herbivory) contributes to its invasion into salt marshes. For I. cairica, a trade-off in resource reallocation may allow increased resources to be allocated to tolerance and growth. This may contribute to a secondary invasion into stressful habitats. Finally, we suggest that I. cairica could spread further and successfully occupy salt marshes, and countermeasures based on herbivory could be ineffective for controlling this invasion.     

Phenotypic plasticity rather than locally adapted ecotypes allows the invasive alligator weed to colonize a wide range of habitats

Both phenotypic plasticity and locally adapted ecotypes may contribute to the success of invasive species in a wide range of habitats. Here, we conducted common garden experiments and molecular marker analysis to test the two alternative hypotheses in invasive alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), which colonizes both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Ninety individuals from three pairs of aquatic versus terrestrial populations across southern China were analyzed, using inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) marker, to examine population differentiation in neutral loci. Two common gardens simulating aquatic and terrestrial habitats were set up to examine population differentiation in quantitative traits. We found no evidence of population differentiation in both neutral loci and quantitative traits. Most individuals shared the same ISSR genotype. Meanwhile, plants from different habitats showed similar reaction norms across the two common gardens. In particular, plants allocated much more biomass to the belowground roots in the terrestrial environment, where alligator weed may lose part or all of the aboveground shoots because of periodical or accidental disturbances, than those in the aquatic environment. The combined evidence from molecular marker analysis and common garden experiments support the plasticity hypothesis rather than the ecotype hypothesis in explaining the adaptation of alligator weed in a wide range of habitats.     

Effects of plant growth promoting bacteria and mycorrhizal on Capsicum annuum L. var. aviculare ([Dierbach] D’Arcy and Eshbaugh) germination under stressing abiotic conditions

Capsicum annuum var. aviculare to Tarahumara and Papago Indians and farmers of Sonora desert is a promising biological and commercial value as a natural resource from arid and semiarid coastal zones. Traditionally, apply synthetic fertilizers to compensate for soil nitrogen deficiency. However, indiscriminate use of these fertilizers might increase salinity. The inoculation by plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) represents an alternative as potential bio fertilizer resources for salty areas. Seeds ecotypes from four areas of Sonora desert (Mazocahui, Baviacora, Arizpe, La Tortuga), in order to inoculate them with one species of PGPB and AMF. Two germination tests were carried out to study the effect of salinity, temperature regime (night/day) and inoculation with PGPB and AMF growth factors measured on germination (percentage and rate), plant height, root length, and produced biomass (fresh and dry matter). The results indicated that from four studied ecotypes, Mazocahui was the most outstanding of all, showing the highest germination under saline and non-saline conditions. However, the PGPB and AMF influenced the others variables evaluated. This study is the first step to obtain an ideal ecotype of C. a. var. aviculare, which grows in the northwest of México and promoting this type of microorganisms as an efficient and reliable biological product. Studies of the association of PGPB and AMF with the C. a. var. aviculare-Mazocahui ecotype are recommended to determine the extent to which these observations can be reproduced under field conditions.     

Genetic variation and plasticity of Plantago coronopus under saline conditions

Phenotypic plasticity may allow organisms to cope with variation in the environmental conditions they encounter in their natural habitats. Salt adaptation appears to be an excellent example of such a plastic response. Many plant species accumulate organic solutes in response to saline conditions. Comparative and molecular studies suggest that this is an adaptation to osmotic stress. However, evidence relating the physiological responses to fitness parameters is rare and requires assessing the potential costs and benefits of plasticity. We studied the response of thirty families derived from plants collected in three populations of Plantago coronopus in a greenhouse experiment under saline and non-saline conditions. We indeed found a positive selection gradient for the sorbitol percentage under saline conditions: plant families with a higher proportion of sorbitol produced more spikes. No effects of sorbitol on fitness parameters were found under non-saline conditions.Populations also differed genetically in leaf number, spike number, sorbitol concentration and percentages of different soluble sugars. Salt treatment led to a reduction of vegetative biomass and spike production but increased leaf dry matter percentage and leaf thickness. Both under saline and non-saline conditions there was a negative trade-off between vegetative growth and reproduction. Families with a high plasticity in leaf thickness had a lower total spike length under non-saline conditions. This would imply that natural selection under predominantly non-saline conditions would lead to a decrease in the ability to change leaf morphology in response to exposure to salt. All other tests revealed no indication for any costs of plasticity to saline conditions.     

Plasticity in salt tolerance traits allows for invasion of novel habitat by Japanese knotweed s. l. (Fallopia japonica and F.xbohemica, Polygonaceae)

Japanese knotweeds are among the most invasive organisms in the world. Their recent expansion into salt marsh habitat provides a unique opportunity to investigate how invasives establish in new environments. We used morphology, cytology, and AFLP genotyping to identify taxa and clonal diversity in roadside and salt marsh populations. We conducted a greenhouse study to determine the ability to tolerate salt and whether salt marsh populations are more salt tolerant than roadside populations as measured by the efficiency of PSII, leaf area, succulence, height, root-to-shoot ratio, and total biomass. Clonal diversity was extremely low with one F. japonica clone and five F. ×bohemica genotypes. The two taxa were significantly different in several traits, but did not vary in biomass or plasticity of any trait. All traits were highly plastic in response to salinity, but differed significantly among genets. Despite this variation, plants from the salt marsh habitats did not perform better in the salt treatment, suggesting that they are not better adapted to tolerate salt. Instead, our data support the hypothesis that plasticity in salt tolerance traits may allow these taxa to live in saline habitats without specific adaptation to tolerate salt.     

Phenotypic Plasticity in Response to the Social Environment: Effects of Density and Sex Ratio on Mating Behaviour Following Ecotype Divergence

The ability to express phenotypically plastic responses to environmental cues might be adaptive in changing environments. We studied phenotypic plasticity in mating behaviour as a response to population density and adult sex ratio in a freshwater isopod (Asellus aquaticus). A. aquaticus has recently diverged into two distinct ecotypes, inhabiting different lake habitats (reed Phragmites australis and stonewort Chara tomentosa, respectively). In field surveys, we found that these habitats differ markedly in isopod population densities and adult sex ratios. These spatially and temporally demographic differences are likely to affect mating behaviour. We performed behavioural experiments using animals from both the ancestral ecotype (“reed” isopods) and from the novel ecotype (“stonewort” isopods) population. We found that neither ecotype adjusted their behaviour in response to population density. However, the reed ecotype had a higher intrinsic mating propensity across densities. In contrast to the effects of density, we found ecotype differences in plasticity in response to sex ratio. The stonewort ecotype show pronounced phenotypic plasticity in mating propensity to adult sex ratio, whereas the reed ecotype showed a more canalised behaviour with respect to this demographic factor. We suggest that the lower overall mating propensity and the phenotypic plasticity in response to sex ratio have evolved in the novel stonewort ecotype following invasion of the novel habitat. Plasticity in mating behaviour may in turn have effects on the direction and intensity of sexual selection in the stonewort habitat, which may fuel further ecotype divergence.     

Responses to simulated winter conditions differ between threespine stickleback ecotypes

Abiotic factors can act as barriers to colonization and drive local adaptation. During colonization, organisms may cope with changes in abiotic factors using existing phenotypic plasticity, but the role of phenotypic plasticity in assisting or hindering the process of local adaptation remains unclear. To address these questions, we explore the role of winter conditions in driving divergence during freshwater colonization and the effects of plasticity on local adaptation in ancestral marine and derived freshwater ecotypes of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We found that freshwater‐resident stickleback had greater tolerance of acute exposure to low temperatures than marine stickleback, but these differences were abolished after acclimation to simulated winter conditions (9L:15D photoperiod at 4 °C). Plasma chloride levels differed between the ecotypes, but showed a similar degree of plasticity between ecotypes. Gene expression of the epithelial calcium channel (ECaC) differed between ecotypes, with the freshwater ecotype demonstrating substantially greater expression than the marine ecotype, but there was no plasticity in this trait under these conditions in either ecotype. In contrast, growth (assessed as final mass) and the expression of an isoform of the electroneutral Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE3) exhibited substantial change with temperature in the marine ecotype that was not observed in the freshwater ecotype under the conditions tested here, which is consistent with evolution of these traits by a process such as genetic assimilation. These data demonstrate substantial divergence in many of these traits between freshwater and marine stickleback, but also illustrate the complexity of possible relationships between plasticity and local adaptation.     

Soil salinity as a selection pressure is a key determinant for the evolution of salt tolerance in Blue Panicgrass (Panicum antidotale Retz.)

To assess the role of selection pressure in plant adaptation to saline environment, a hydroponic experiment was conducted on six Panicum antidotale Retz. populations collected from a wide range of habitats with varying selection pressure in the form of soil salinity. The soil electrical conductivity of six different habitats ranged from 3.39 to 19.23 dS m⁻¹ and pH from 5.86 to 7.65. Plants of all populations collected from varying habitats were established in pots containing normal soil and allowed to grow for 6 months. Newly grown tillers from each plant were separated and 10 of them each formed a composite sample for a particular population. They were then transplanted in plastic containers each containing 10 l of half strength Hoagland's nutrient solution alone or with 150 mol m⁻³ NaCl. After 42 days growth in salt treatment, the populations collected form highly saline habitats proved to be more salt-tolerant compared with those from mild or non-saline habitats in terms of growth performance. The populations adapted to high salinity showed less decrease in leaf K⁺/Na⁺ and Ca²⁺/Na⁺ ratios under salinity stress. Moreover, under stress the salt-tolerant populations showed less reduction in photosynthetic capacity than the salt-sensitive populations. In addition, hyper-accumulation of organic solutes such as glycinebetaine and proline and thereby higher osmotic adjustment seemed to be associated with the higher degree of adaptability of the salt-tolerant populations to salt stress. From the data presented, it is plausible to conclude that selection pressure (soil salinity) must have been one of the important determinants bringing about the evolution of salt-tolerance trait in Blue Panic grass.     

Phenotypic variation and water selection potential in the stem structure of invasive alligator weed

The morphological and anatomical characteristics of stems have been found to be related to drought resistance in plants. Testing the phenotypic selection of water availability on stem anatomical traits would be useful for exploring the evolutionary potential of the stem in response to water availability. To test the phenotypic variation of the stem anatomical traits of an invasive plant in response to water availability, we collected a total of 320 individuals of Alternanthera philoxeroides from 16 populations from terrestrial and aquatic habitats in 8 plots in China and then analyzed the variation, differentiation, plasticity and selection potential of water availability on the stem anatomical traits. We found that except for the thickness of the cortex, all of the examined phenotypic parameters of the A. philoxeroides stem were significantly and positively correlated with soil water availability. The phenotypic differentiation coefficient for all of the anatomical structural parameters indicated that most of the variation existed between habitats within the same plot, whereas there was little variation among plots or among individuals within the same habitat except for variation in the thickness of the cortex. A significant phenotypic plasticity response to water availability was found for all of the anatomical traits of A. philoxeroides stem except for the thickness of the cortex. The associations between fitness and some of the anatomical traits, such as the stem diameter, the cortex area-to-stem area ratio, the pith cavity area-to-stem area ratio and the density of vascular bundles, differed with heterogeneous water availability. In both the aquatic and terrestrial habitats, no significant directional selection gradient was found for the stem diameter, the cortex area-to-stem area ratio or the density of vascular bundles. These results indicated that the anatomical structure of the A. philoxeroides stem may play an important role in the adaptation to changes in water availability.     

Variable salinity tolerance in ascidian larvae is primarily a plastic response to the parental environment

Both phenotypic plasticity and local genetic adaptation may contribute to a species’ ability to inhabit different environmental conditions. While phenotypic plasticity is usually considered costly, local adaptation takes generations to respond to environmental change and may be constrained by strong gene flow. The majority of marine species have complex life-cycles with pelagic stages that might be expected to promote gene flow and plastic responses, and yet several notable examples of local adaptation have been found in species with broadcast larvae. In the ascidian, Ciona intestinalis (Linnaeus, 1767),—a common marine species with broadcast spawning and a short larval stage—previous studies have found marked differences in salinity tolerance of early life-history stages among populations from different salinity regimes. We used common-garden experiments to test whether observed differences in salinity tolerance could be explained by phenotypic plasticity. Adult ascidians from two low salinity populations [2–5 m depth, ~25 practical salinity units (PSU)], and two full salinity populations (25–27 m depth, ~31 PSU) were acclimated for 2–4 weeks at both 25 and 31 PSU. Gametes were fertilized at the acclimation salinities, and the newly formed embryos were transferred to 10 different salinities (21–39 PSU) and cultured to metamorphosis. Adult acclimation salinity had an overriding and significant effect on larval metamorphic success: tolerance norms for larvae almost fully matched the acclimation salinity of the parents, independent of parental origin (deep or shallow). However we also detected minor population differences that could be attributed to either local adaptation or persistent environmental effects. We conclude that differences in salinity tolerance of C. intestinalis larvae from different populations are driven primarily by transgenerational phenotypic plasticity, a strategy that seems particularly favourable for an organism living in coastal waters where salinity is less readily predicted than in the open oceans.     

Population differentiation within Festuca rubra L. with regard to soil salinity and soil water

Summary Seed and transplanted adult plants from populations of Festuca rubra, collected from inland, salt-marsh and sand-dune sites were grown on culture solution with added sodium chloride. The growth of the populations of the three habitats was reduced differentially by salt. The salt marsh ecotype Festuca rubra ssp. litoralis was only slightly affected and the inland ecotype F. rubra ssp. rubra was severely retarded at 60 mM NaCl. The dune ecotype F. rubra ssp. arenaria had an intermediate tolerance. The tolerant ecotypes accumulated less sodium chloride as compared to the sensitive ecotype, suggesting that salt tolerance is caused in part by salt exclusion.In addition, the dune ecotype F.r. arenaria appeared to be more drought tolerant than the salt marsh ecotype. Abscission of salt-saturated leaves does not function as an adaptation to salinity in Festuca rubra.All three ecotypes accumulated proline with increased salinity. The response was most pronounced in the drought tolerant F.r. arenaria, indicating that proline accumulation is a response to osmotic stress rather than to ion-specific effects of salinity. The observed differences in salt tolerance may be explained by differential sensitivity to toxic effects of sodium chloride.The occurrence on a beach plain of closely adjacent populations of F.r. arenaria and F.r. litoralis, differing markedly in salt tolerance, is briefly discussed.     

Do clonal growth form and habitat origin affect resource-induced plasticity in Tibetan alpine herbs?

To investigate how growth form and habitat origin affect phenotypic plasticity to resource supply in the Tibetan alpine herbs, the phalanx-type species Stipa capillacea and the guerilla-type species Carex montis-everestii were sampled from two different habitats (alpine steppe and alpine scrubland) and grown under three levels of light intensity and two levels of nutrient supply. Interspecific differences in light-induced plasticity were detected only in number of ramets, specific leaf area and leaf sheath length. Plasticity in plant biomass, number of ramets and rhizome length in response to light intensity differed between the two habitats. Stipa plants were more plastic than Carex plants in number of ramets and specific leaf area in response to light intensity. Carex plants from the alpine scrubland expressed greater light-induced plasticity in plant biomass and number of ramets than those from the alpine steppe, and Stipa plants showed less interhabitat differences in plasticity, which may be closely related to their contrasting growth forms. Clonal growth form and habitat origin affected nutrient-induced plasticity in none of the measured traits. It may be the guerilla growth form that makes Carex plants more efficiently adapted to highly heterogeneous light conditions in scrubland, and less habitat-dependent plasticity contributes to success of the phalanx-type Stipa plants in alpine habitats. The results are discussed in the context of foraging for heterogeneously distributed essential resources and adaptation to habitat origin.     

Molecular characterisation of prolactin and analysis of extrapituitary expression in the European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax under various salinity conditions

Although prolactin has been demonstrated to be the main hormone involved in adaptation to dilute media in several freshwater teleosts, few studies have been conducted in marine teleosts. In the Mediterranean, the sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax inhabits environments ranging from the open sea to coastal lagoons, where salinity varies greatly. We characterised the prolactin (prl) gene and analysed its expression in two organs (gill and intestine) in D. labrax acclimated to either freshwater or seawater. A 2819 bp long sequence encompassing the prl gene and a part (282 bp) of the promoter were identified, and these comprised 5 coding exons separated by 4 introns. Prolactin was similarly expressed in fresh- and seawater adapted fish, although expression in gills was significantly greater than in the intestine. Nonetheless, individuals unable to successfully regulate osmotic balance in freshwater presented overall low expression rates. Results are discussed according to the mechanism of sea bass adaptation in the wild and to their life cycle between open sea and lagoons. Finally, a phylogenetic analysis indicated that teleosts are not branched according to their life-history features (e.g. seawater vs. freshwater habitats), and no signature of positive selection was detected across the phylogeny of the prl gene in teleosts.     

Comparative salinity tolerance in native flies from the subantarctic Kerguelen Islands: a metabolomic approach

The quasi-extirpation of the cabbage Pringlea antiscorbutica in some locations at the Kerguelen Islands has large impacts on the distribution of the native fly Calycopteryx moseleyi. This insect has long been supposed as being subordinant to P. antiscorbutica until both larvae and adults were observed under seaweed in littoral margins. Physiological plasticity to saline conditions is expected in C. moseleyi, and metabolic rearrangements in salt-exposed specimens should thus be similar between individuals from cabbages and seaweeds. Individuals of C. moseleyi from non-saline (cabbages) and saline (seaweeds) habitats were experimentally subjected to different salinities (0, 35, 70 practical salinity units) and compared to the widely distributed native Anatalanta aptera flies that coexist with C. moseleyi under the seaweeds. A progressive drop of the survival and body water content was observed in C. moseleyi from cabbages exposed to increasing saline conditions. Body water contents remained similar at 35 and 70 practical salinity units in C. moseleyi from seaweeds, while it did not change over the whole saline gradient in A. aptera. Metabolic profiles revealed that both fly populations from the seaweeds accumulated compatible solutes in the form of alanine or glutamic acid when they were exposed to salinity. A distinct pattern was observed in C. moseleyi specimens from cabbages, whose metabolic profiles revealed a progressive loss of metabolic homoeostasis. We conclude that the C. moseleyi specimens from the cabbages and seaweeds differentiated, as also supported by their contrasted morphotypes, and that the limited salinity tolerance of individuals from cabbages may hinder their future expansion to seaweeds.     

Differential expression of physiological and biochemical characters of some Indian mangroves towards salt tolerance

Mangroves are physiologically interesting as potential models for stress tolerance and as sources of alternative ideas about physiological strategies relevant at the ecosystem level. Variation in habitat has great impact on the physiological behavior and biochemical expression level of a particular plant species. Five species of mangroves, growing in saline and fresh water conditions were assessed for their ecological fitness in two different habitats. Assessments were based on some physiological and biochemical parameters measured from the fully exposed mature leaves under saline (15–27 PPT) and non-saline (1.2–2 PPT) conditions. Among the five species considered for investigation Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Excoecaria agallocha and Phoenix paludosa grow luxuriously in the Sundarbans forest, while the rest two (Heritiera fomes, Xylocarpus granatum) are scanty. A comparative account of photosynthetic efficiency, chlorophyll content, mesophyll and stomatal conductance, specific leaf area, photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency, total foliar free amino acids and differential expression of some antioxidant isoenzymes in leaf were estimated between the saline and non-saline plants. Elevated assimilation rate coupled with increased chlorophyll content, increased conductance and higher specific leaf area in non-saline condition indicates ability of these mangroves to grow even under minimal substrate salinity. The optimum PAR acquisition for photosynthesis in B. gymnorrhiza, E. agallocha and P. paludosa was higher under salt stress, while the maximum assimilation rate was lower in control plants. The opposite trend occurred in H. fomes and X. granatum, where the peak photosynthesis was lower under non-saline conditions even at a higher irradiance than in the saline forest. The isoform patterns of peroxidase, acid phosphatase and esterase indicated considerable difference in regulation of these enzymes due to salt stress and /or reverse adaptation.Key words: Chlorophyll content, Isozymes, Mangroves, Photosynthetic efficiency, Specific leaf area     

Host ecotype generates evolutionary and epidemiological divergence across a pathogen metapopulation

The extent and speed at which pathogens adapt to host resistance varies considerably. This presents a challenge for predicting when—and where—pathogen evolution may occur. While gene flow and spatially heterogeneous environments are recognized to be critical for the evolutionary potential of pathogen populations, we lack an understanding of how the two jointly shape coevolutionary trajectories between hosts and pathogens. The rust pathogen Melampsora lini infects two ecotypes of its host plant Linum marginale that occur in close proximity yet in distinct populations and habitats. In this study, we found that within-population epidemics were different between the two habitats. We then tested for pathogen local adaptation at host population and ecotype level in a reciprocal inoculation study. Even after controlling for the effect of spatial structure on infection outcome, we found strong evidence of pathogen adaptation at the host ecotype level. Moreover, sequence analysis of two pathogen infectivity loci revealed strong genetic differentiation by host ecotype but not by distance. Hence, environmental variation can be a key determinant of pathogen population genetic structure and coevolutionary dynamics and can generate strong asymmetry in infection risks through space.     

Hybridization,polyploidy and clonality influence geographic patterns of diversity and salt tolerance in the model halophyte seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum)

In plant species, variation in levels of clonality, ploidy and interspecific hybridization can interact to influence geographic patterns of genetic diversity. These factors commonly vary in plants that specialize on saline habitats (halophytes) and may play a role in how they adapt to salinity variation across their range. One such halophyte is the turfgrass and emerging genomic model system seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum Swartz). To investigate how clonal propagation, ploidy variation, and interspecific hybridization vary across ecotypes and local salinity levels in wild P. vaginatum, we employed genotyping‐by‐sequencing, cpDNA sequencing and flow cytometry in 218 accessions representing > 170 wild collections from throughout the coastal southern United States plus USDA germplasm. We found that the two morphologically distinct ecotypes of P. vaginatum differ in their adaptive strategies. The fine‐textured ecotype is diploid and appears to reproduce in the wild both sexually and by clonal propagation; in contrast, the coarse‐textured ecotype consists largely of clonally‐propagating triploid and diploid genotypes. The coarse‐textured ecotype appears to be derived from hybridization between fine‐textured P. vaginatum and an unidentified Paspalum species. These clonally propagating hybrid genotypes are more broadly distributed than clonal fine‐textured genotypes and may represent a transition to a more generalist adaptive strategy. Additionally, the triploid genotypes vary in whether they carry one or two copies of the P. vaginatum subgenome, indicating multiple evolutionary origins. This variation in subgenome composition shows associations with local ocean salinity levels across the sampled populations and may play a role in local adaptation.     

Involvement of polyamines,abscisic acid and anti-oxidative enzymes in adaptation of Blue Panicgrass (Panicum antidotale Retz.) to saline environments

A hydroponic experiment was conducted to assess the possible involvement of polyamines (PAs), abscisic acid (ABA) and anti-oxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) in adaptation of six populations of Panicum antidotale Retz. to selection pressure (soil salinity) of a wide range of habitats. Plants of six populations were collected from six different habitats with ECe ranging from 3.39 to 19.23 dS m⁻¹ and pH from 7.65 to 5.86. Young tillers from 6-month-old plants were transplanted in plastic containers each containing 10 l of half strength Hoagland's nutrient solution alone or with 150 mol m⁻³ NaCl. After 42 days growth, contents of polyamines (Put, Spd and Spm) and ABA, and the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes (SOD, POD and CAT) of all populations generally increased under salt stress. The populations collected from highly saline habitats showed a greater accumulation of polyamines and ABA and the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes as compared to those from mild or non-saline habitats. Moreover, Spm/Spd and Put/(Spd + Spm) ratios generally increased under salt stress. However, the populations from highly saline environments had significantly higher Spm/Spd and Put/(Spd + Spm) ratios as compared to those from mild or non-saline environments. Similarly, the populations adapted to high salinity accumulated less Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in culm and leaves, and showed less decrease in leaf K⁺ and Ca²⁺ under salinity stress. Higher activities of anti-oxidative enzymes and accumulation of polyamines and ABA, and increased Spm/Spd and Put/(Spm + Spd) ratios were found to be highly correlated with the degree of adaptability of Panicum to saline environment.