Fruit fall in tropical and temperate forests: implications for frugivore diversity

There have been few attempts to compare fruit productivity throughout the world, although this is indispensable for understanding the global variations in frugivore diversity. The purposes of this study are (1) to reveal the patterns in fruit fall in tropical and temperate forests, (2) to examine the environmental factors (location, climate, and total litterfall) affecting these patterns, and (3) to assess the effect of fruit fall on frugivore diversity by using bird and primate data. Fruit fall was compared among 53 forests, from around the equator to the cool-temperate zone at 62°N, in Asia, Africa, North and South America, and Australia. Average ± SD of fruit fall (kg/ha/year) was 454 ± 258 in tropical, and 362 ± 352 in temperate forests. Fruit fall was exceptionally high in Australia (812 ± 461). When Australia was excluded, fruit fall significantly decreased with increasing absolute latitude and altitude, and fruit fall in tropical forest was 1.7 times larger than that in temperate forests (265 ± 227). Total litterfall affected fruit fall significantly, explaining 32, 28, and 64% of the variations of fruit fall in the entire data, tropical data, and temperate data, respectively. The fruit fall/litterfall ratio did not differ between temperate and tropical forests but was significantly higher in Australia than in other regions. Among climatic parameters (annual temperature, precipitation, actual evapotranspiration), a positive relationship was found between temperature and fruit fall in the entire dataset and within temperate forests. Fruit fall seemed to explain the temperate/tropical difference in frugivorous primate diversity to some extent, but not for frugivorous bird diversity. This study shows that the difference in fruit fall in tropical and temperate forests is smaller than that in frugivore diversity, and that it could explain at least part of the frugivore diversity.     

Nest attendance by tropical and temperate passerine birds: Same constancy,different strategy

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Seasonal variability in survivorship of a cooperatively breeding tropical passerine

Survival of tropical passerines is thought to be higher than those in northern temperate regions, but relatively few tropical studies have addressed this issue, particularly in tropical Asia. We examined factors that may have influenced the survival rate of a cooperatively breeding bird, the puff-throated bulbul (Alophoixus pallidus), in an evergreen forest in northeastern Thailand. These factors included year, season (breeding and non-breeding), sex, and presence of helper(s) in a family group. We present evidence of breeding season-dependent survival in a tropical passerine using an information theoretic approach based on both mark-recapture and resighting data collected during 6 years of study. Based on colour-banded adults the annual survival rate did not vary significantly among years (average = 0.85 ± 0.02 SE). The mean lifespan (MLS) for the population was 6.22 ± 4.38 SE years. Survivorship was lower during the breeding season (0.89 ± 0.02 SE) than during the non-breeding season (0.96 ± 0.02 SE). The MLS of males and females was 6.70 ± 7.73 SE and 5.87 ± 4.88 SE years, respectively. The annual survival rate we observed was high compared to the estimates of other tropical and temperate passerines, possibly due to the relatively stable climatic conditions in tropical latitudes and puff-throated bulbuls being generalists that exploit a wide range of food resources both in space and time.     

The neotropical shrub Lupinus elegans,from temperate forests,may not adapt to climate change

Considering that their distribution is limited to altitudinal gradients along mountains that are likely to become warmer and drier, climate change poses an increased threat to temperate forest species from tropical regions. We studied whether the understorey shrub Lupinus elegans, endemic to temperate forests of west‐central Mexico, will be able to withstand the projected temperature increase under seven climate change scenarios. Seeds were collected along an altitudinal gradient and grown in a shade‐house over 7 months before determining their temperature tolerance as electrolyte leakage. The plants from colder sites tolerated lower temperatures, i.e. the temperature at which half of the maximum electrolyte leakage occurred (LT₅₀), ranged from −6.4 ± 0.7 to −2.4 ± 0.3 °C. In contrast, no pattern was found for tolerance to high temperature (LT₅₀ average 42.8 ± 0.3 °C). The climate change scenarios considered here consistently estimated an increase in air temperature during the present century that was higher for the maximum air temperature than for the mean or minimum. In particular, the anomaly from the normal maximum air temperature at the study region ranged from 2.8 °C by 2030 to 5.8 °C by 2090. In this respect, the inability of L. elegans to adapt to increasingly higher temperatures found here, in addition to a possible inhibition of reproduction caused by warmer winters, may limit its future distribution.     

The effect of moxidectin 0,1% vs ivermectin 0,08% on milk production in sheep naturally infected by gastrointestinal nematodes

Background  

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection is one of the main constraints to sheep production both in temperate and tropical countries. Economic losses caused by GIN are related to decreased production, treatment costs and even animal death. The present paper was aimed at assessing the anthelmintic efficacy (based on faecal egg count reduction) of moxidectin and ivermectin both admistered per os at dose rate of 0.2 mg/Kg body weight and the benefit of anthelmintic treatments on milk production in a commercial dairy sheep farms in central Italy whose animals were naturally infected by GIN.     

Assessing the Spatiotemporal Variation in Distribution,Extent and NPP of Terrestrial Ecosystems in Response to Climate Change from 1911 to 2000

To assess the variation in distribution, extent, and NPP of global natural vegetation in response to climate change in the period 1911–2000 and to provide a feasible method for climate change research in regions where historical data is difficult to obtain. In this research, variations in spatiotemporal distributions of global potential natural vegetation (PNV) from 1911 to 2000 were analyzed with the comprehensive sequential classification system (CSCS) and net primary production (NPP) of different ecosystems was evaluated with the synthetic model to determine the effect of climate change on the terrestrial ecosystems. The results showed that consistently rising global temperature and altered precipitation patterns had exerted strong influence on spatiotemporal distribution and productivities of terrestrial ecosystems, especially in the mid/high latitudes. Ecosystems in temperate zones expanded and desert area decreased as a consequence of climate variations. The vegetation that decreased the most was cold desert (18.79%), while the maximum increase (10.31%) was recorded in savanna. Additionally, the area of tundra and alpine steppe reduced significantly (5.43%) and were forced northward due to significant ascending temperature in the northern hemisphere. The global terrestrial ecosystems productivities increased by 2.09%, most of which was attributed to savanna (6.04%), tropical forest (0.99%), and temperate forest (5.49%). Most NPP losses were found in cold desert (27.33%). NPP increases displayed a latitudinal distribution. The NPP of tropical zones amounted to more than a half of total NPP, with an estimated increase of 1.32%. The increase in northern temperate zone was the second highest with 3.55%. Global NPP showed a significant positive correlation with mean annual precipitation in comparison with mean annual temperature and biological temperature. In general, effects of climate change on terrestrial ecosystems were deep and profound in 1911–2000, especially in the latter half of the period.     

Survival and growth of microscopic fungi derived from tropical regions under future heat waves in the Pannonian Biogeographical Region

Warming and heat waves are predicted by different climate models in the near future in the Pannonian Biogeographical Region (PBR). These climatic effects may have impact on the prevalence and distribution of certain fungal species of this area. In this study the effects of predicted climate scenarios were tested on fungi being endemic or unintentionally introduced by global trade from regions of warm temperate climate. Common fungal species were selected for the study and exposed to heat waves during 7 days according to two climate scenarios: one moderately (RCP 4.5, T_avg = 27 °C, T_max = 35 °C, RH: 100%) and one strongly pessimistic (RCP 8.5, T_avg = 30 °C, T_max = 40 °C, RH: 100%) that include predictions for the Central Hungarian Region for July 2050. According to our results, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus tubingensis and Fusarium strains introduced from tropical regions tolerated heat waves, unlike Penicillium and Talaromyces spp. and endemic Cladosporium spp. which were unable to grow under the RCP 8.5 treatment. The effects of climate change on fungi raise new issues not only from economic and health perspectives, but also in relation with plant protection and environment. Our results suggest that heat waves driven by climate change promote the colonization and growth of the tested strains of non-native fungi more likely than that of the native ones.     

Parasite structure of the Ocean Whitefish <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caulolatilus princeps</Emphasis> from Baja California,México (East Pacific)

The metazoan parasite fauna of Caulolatilus princeps from northern Baja California, Mexico is quantitatively described for the first time. Further, the ecological aspects of prevalence, abundance, and intensity of infection are examined through an annual cycle. Six parasite species were recorded; 2 ectoparasites (1 monogenean and 1 copepod) and 4 endoparasites (2 digeneans and 2 nematodes). The digeneans Choanodera caulolatili and Bianium plicitum, the nematodes Anisakis sp. and Hysterothylacium sp., and the copepod Hatschekia sp. set new geographical and host records. The highest values of prevalence and abundance were in Anisakis sp. (prevalence = 93.3%, abundance = 12.4 ± 4.7 ind/host) and in Hysterothylacium sp. (prevalence = 86.6%, abundance = 16.5 ± 3.4 ind/host). The mean intensity of infection showed maximum values in summer (August = 14.2) and minimums in winter (February = 4.2). The mean intensity was higher in Hatschekia sp. (20.3 ± 7.8) followed by Hysterothylacium sp. (18.6 ± 1.4) and Anisakis sp. (12.9 ± 2.2). Larval stages of Anisakis and Hysterothylacium were particularly important due to their high abundance and prevalence, because they represent a human health risk (anisakiasis). In addition, the relationships between the metazoan parasites of C. princeps and host size and weight, fish condition and water temperature (bottom) are discussed.     

Pattern of changes in species diversity,structure and dynamics of forest ecosystems along latitudinal gradients in East Asia

We examined effects of seasonality of climate and dominant life form (evergreen/deciduous, broad-leaf/coniferous) together with energy condition on species diversity, forest structure, forest dynamics, and productivity of forest ecosystems by comparing the patterns of changes in these ecosystem attributes along altitudinal gradients in tropical regions without seasonality and along a latitudinal gradient from tropical to temperate regions in humid East Asia. We used warmth index (temperature sum during growing season, WI) as an index of energy condition common to both altitudinal and latitudinal gradients. There were apparent differences in patterns of changes in the ecosystem attributes in relation to WI among four forest formations that were classified according to dominant life form and climatic zone (tropical/temperate). Many of the ecosystem attributes—Fishers alpha of species-diversity indices, maximum tree height and stem density, productivity [increment rate of aboveground biomass (AGB)], and population and biomass turnover rates—changed sharply with WI in tropical and temperate evergreen broad-leaved forests, but did not change linearly or changed only loosely with WI in temperate deciduous broad-leaved and evergreen coniferous forests. Values of these ecosystem attributes in temperate deciduous broad-leaved and evergreen coniferous forests were higher (stem density was lower) than those in tropical and temperate evergreen broad-leaved forests under colder conditions (WI below 100°C). Present results indicate that seasonality of climate and resultant change in dominant life form work to buffer the effects of energy reduction on ecosystem attributes along latitudinal gradients.     

Aquatic insect faunas and communities of a mountain stream in Sapa Highland,northern Vietnam

Aquatic insect communities were investigated from the Muonghoa Stream in the Sapa Highland (highest peak 3,143 m), a subtropical mountain stream in northern Vietnam. Field investigations for quantitative (Surber net 50 cm × 50 cm, mesh size 0.2 mm, riffle and pool/run) and qualitative (hand net, mesh size 1 mm) sampling were conducted at nine sites along the watercourse between 27 November and 2 December 2005. As a result, a total of 216 species (the majority of them undescribed) belonging to 139 genera, 61 families, and nine orders were recognized: 53 Ephemeroptera species (24.5%), nine Odonata species (4.2%), 15 Plecoptera species (6.9%), seven Hemiptera species (3.2%), 35 Coleoptera species (16.2%), one Megaloptera species (0.5%), 29 Diptera species (13.4%), 66 Trichoptera species (30.6%), and one Lepidoptera species (0.5%). Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Coleoptera represented the major aquatic insect groups with regard to taxonomic and individual richness, whereas Hemiptera and Odonata were relatively less diverse and abundant than in studies of other tropical Southeast Asian streams. The dominance, richness, and diversity indices (H′) fell within the following ranges [mean ± standard deviation (SD)]: 0.18–0.76 (0.42 ± 0.19), 4.13–9.19 (7.06 ± 1.45), and 1.61–3.22 (2.67 ± 0.55), respectively. Riffle habitats generally yielded numbers of aquatic insect species and individuals approximately twice that sampled in pool/run habitats. Shredders were relatively larger in proportion within the headwater reach, whereas scrapers and collector-gatherers were more abundant in the middle and lower stream reaches. This functional feeding group composition is characteristic of temperate streams in East Asia. The results of detrended correspondence analysis and Bray–Curtis cluster analysis indicated that aquatic insect compositions at the sampling sites were very reflective of the reach characteristics, which evidence gradual changes with altitude and stream order along the stream watercourse. This is the first comprehensive investigation of aquatic insects in highland Southeast Asian regions.     

Spatiotemporal patterns of coral disease prevalence on Heron Island,Great Barrier Reef,Australia

Despite increasing research effort on coral diseases, little is known about factors driving disease dynamics on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). This is the first study to investigate the temporal patterns of coral disease prevalence and potential drivers of disease around Heron Island, in the southern Capricorn Bunker sector of the GBR. Surveys were conducted in two austral summers and three winters between November 2007 and August 2009 on six sites around the island. Six diseases were detected: brown band syndrome (BrB), growth anomalies (GA), ulcerative white spots (UWS), white syndrome (WS), skeletal eroding band disease (SEB) and black band disease (BBD). The lowest overall mean disease prevalence was 1.87 ± 0.75% (mean ± SE) in November 2007 and the highest 4.22 ± 1.72% in August 2008. There was evidence of seasonality for two diseases: BrB and UWS. This is the first study to report a higher prevalence of BrB in the winter. BrB had a prevalence of 3.29 ± 0.58% in August 2008 and 1.53 ± 0.28% in August 2009, while UWS was the most common syndrome in the summer with a prevalence of 1.12 ± 0.31% in November 2007 and 2.67 ± 0.52% prevalence in January 2008. The prevalence of GAs and SEB did not depend on the season, although the prevalence of GAs increased throughout the study period. WS had a slightly higher prevalence in the summer, but its overall prevalence was low (<0.5%). Sites with high abundance of staghorn Acropora and Montipora were characterised by the highest disease prevalence (12% of Acropora and 3.3% of Montipora species were diseased respectively). These results highlight the correlations between coral disease prevalence, seasonally varying environmental parameters and coral community composition. Given that diseases are likely to reduce the resilience of corals, seasonal patterns in disease prevalence deserve further research.     

A global climate niche for giant trees

Rainforests are among the most charismatic as well as the most endangered ecosystems of the world. However, although the effects of climate change on tropical forests resilience is a focus of intense research, the conditions for their equally impressive temperate counterparts remain poorly understood, and it remains unclear whether tropical and temperate rainforests have fundamental similarities or not. Here we use new global data from high precision laser altimetry equipment on satellites to reveal for the first time that across climate zones ‘giant forests’ are a distinct and universal phenomenon, reflected in a separate mode of canopy height (~40 m) worldwide. Occurrence of these giant forests (cutoff height > 25 m) is negatively correlated with variability in rainfall and temperature. We also demonstrate that their distribution is sharply limited to situations with a mean annual precipitation above a threshold of 1,500 mm that is surprisingly universal across tropical and temperate climates. The total area with such precipitation levels is projected to increase by ~4 million km² globally. Our results thus imply that strategic management could in principle facilitate the expansion of giant forests, securing critically endangered biodiversity as well as carbon storage in selected regions.     

Seasonal alteration in prevalence and intensity of naturally occurring gastrointestinal helminth infection in goats of New Alluvial zone of West Bengal,India

Parasitic gastroenteritis is one of the major limiting factors for optimum productivity in small ruminants. The present study was carried out to determine the seasonal alteration in prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths (GIH) and intensity of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection in goats of New Alluvial zone (NAZ) of West Bengal. A total of 4320 faecal samples of goats from six different places of NAZ were examined by the standard coprological techniques for the presence of gastrointestinal parasites during January 2014 to December 2015. The meteorological data of the study area were also collected from the Regional Meteorological Station, Kolkata. The prevalence of GIH was recorded as 70.52% and Strongyle (65.18%) group of nematodes was found significantly (p < 0.05) higher than other helminths. Highest (p < 0.05) prevalence (85.11%) as well as intensity of GIN infection (EPG = 640) was observed in monsoon and lowest (p < 0.05) prevalence (60.55%) and intensity (EPG = 340) was recorded in summer. Haemonchus contortus was found to be the predominant GIN species. The observations of the present study both in terms of parasite epidemiology and meteorological data should be utilised for planning strategic control measures against GI helminths in goats of NAZ of West Bengal.     

Potential for Nematode Control by Mycofloras Endemic in the Tropics

Results of mycological surveys of root-knot and cyst nematodes from tropical regions indicate that most fungal species associated with females or cysts of species of Globodera, Heterodera, and Meloidogyne are those found with nematodes from temperate areas. Some fungal species, however, were found in higher frequency in tropical regions than in temperate countries; e.g., Cylindrocarpon destructans and Ulocladium atrum were the most common species associated with G. pallida and G. rostochiensis cysts in Peru. These fungi are not so frequent in nematodes from temperate areas. Fungi associated with diseased nematodes in the tropics vary greatly in nutritional requirements and include thermophilic species as well as cold-tolerant fungi. Multi-cropping systems possible in most tropical regions may be designed to increase the frequency of occurrence of microbial species antagonistic to phytonematodes.     

A study of nephron function in normal tropical residents using the creatinine and lithium clearances

 The kidney bears the brunt of the demands of a tropical climate for water and electrolyte homeostasis. We hypothesised that a tropical climate may cause adaptive changes in the entire organism leading to altered renal function in our subjects. Hence renal function data for residents of a temperate climate may not be applic- able to tropical residents. We therefore sought to elucidate renal function in subjects residing in a tropical climate. We used lithium clearance, C _Li, a non-invasive tool for assessing proximal tubular function in humans, and endogenous creatinine clearance, C _Cr, to estimate proximal tubular function and glomerular function, respectively, in our subjects. We did this in order to establish whether or not nephron function in our subjects differs from that for residents of a temperate climate. Nineteen male and 12 female Ghanaian subjects aged between 15 and 48 years were studied. The estimated G _Cr was 117.3±6.6 ml/min for male subjects and 97±6.4 ml/min for female subjects. C _Li was 20.3±1.6 ml/min for male and 19.1±0.4 ml/min for female subjects, respectively. The estimated absolute reabsorption rate of fluid of proximal tubules was 97.0±6.0 ml/min for males and 78.1±6.0 ml/min for females. The percentage proximal fluid reabsorption for male and female subjects was 81.2±1.4 and 79.5±1.6, respectively. The differences between male and female values (mean±SEM) were not statistically significant. The data suggest that the proximal tubule in residents of a tropical climate may reabsorb more fluid compared to that in residents of a temperate climate. Our values for proximal tubular reabsorption are higher than those reported for residents of a temperature climate. Our estimate of glomerular filtration, however, is similar to published data for Caucasians. The difference in proximal tubular function may reflect possible renal adaptation to a hot, humid climate. We conclude that renal function of tropical residents differs from that of residents of a temperate climate. This difference may be due to renal adaptation to the hot, tropical climate. Received: 1 July 1996 / Revised: 22 December 1996 / Accepted: 8 January 1997     

Prevalence and loads of gastrointestinal parasites of goats in the communal areas of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

A longitudinal survey was conducted to determine the prevalence and loads of gastrointestinal parasites in goats raised by communal farmers of Qaukeni (QA) and Nkosana (NK) communities of Eastern Cape Province of South Africa between June 2007 and April 2008. One hundred and seventy one goats were weighed and had faecal samples collected from their recta in four seasons; cold-dry, hot-dry, hot-wet and the post-rainy seasons. The samples were examined by the modified McMaster technique for nematode egg types. Goats in QA weighed more (P < 0.05) than those in NK in the post-rainy, cold-dry and hot-dry seasons. However, in the hot-wet season, goats in NK had higher (P < 0.05) weights than those in QA. The most frequently detected gastrointestinal eggs were the strongyle egg type (68.4 ± 8.49 in QA and 96.1 ± 12.01 in NK), followed by coccidial oocysts (53.3 ± 8.76 in QA and 68.8 ± 8.00 in NK). The other identified nematodes were Strongyloides and Trichostrongylus egg types. Higher loads (P < 0.05) of strongyle eggs were observed in the hot-wet and post-rainy seasons, whilst the other egg types showed a peak in the hot-wet season. Strongyle egg counts were higher (P < 0.05) in NK compared to QA. The results indicate that strongyles are the major gastrointestinal egg types negatively affecting body weights of goats.     

Seasonal and demographic factors influencing gastrointestinal parasitism in ungulates of Etosha National Park

Host-parasite dynamics can be strongly affected by seasonality and age-related host immune responses. We investigated how observed variation in the prevalence and intensity of parasite egg or oocyst shedding in four co-occurring ungulate species may reflect underlying seasonal variation in transmission and host immunity. This study was conducted July 2005-October 2006 in Etosha National Park, Namibia, using indices of parasitism recorded from 1,022 fecal samples collected from plains zebra (Equus quagga), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), and gemsbok (Oryx gazella). The presence and intensity of strongyle nematodes, Strongyloides spp. and Eimeria spp. parasites, were strongly seasonal for most host-parasite combinations, with more hosts infected in the wet season than the dry season. Strongyle intensity in zebra was significantly lower in juveniles than adults, and in springbok hosts, Eimeria spp. intensity was significantly greater in juveniles than adults. These results provide evidence that acquired immunity is less protective against strongyle nematodes than Eimeria spp. infections. The seasonal patterns in parasitism further indicate that the long dry season may limit development and survival of parasite stages in the environment and, as a result, host contact and parasite transmission.     

Temperate forest termites: ecology,biogeography, and ecosystem impacts

1. Wood decomposition in temperate forests is dominated by termites, fungi, and some species of ants and beetles. Outside of urban areas, temperate termite ecology is largely unknown, particularly when compared to tropical termites and other temperate organisms in the functional guild of wood‐decomposing animals. 2. This review combines climate habitat modelling with knowledge of species physiology, behaviour, and community interactions to identify and prioritise future research on temperate termite ecology and biogeography. 3. Using a correlative climate model, the regional distributions of three common temperate forest termite species are shown to correlate with different aspects of climate (e.g. mean versus minimum monthly temperature), but that overall their distributions within temperate systems correlate more strongly with temperature variables than with precipitation variables. 4. Existing data are synthesised to outline how the subterranean, wood‐nesting behaviour of most temperate forest termite species links their activity to an additional set of non‐climate controls: wood type and tree species, soil depth, fungal activity, ant abundances and phenology, and competitive asymmetries among termite species. 5. Although fine‐scale estimates of temperate termite abundances are rare, we provide upper bounds on their ecosystem impacts and illustrate how their regional abundances may influence forest structure and habitat availability for other organisms. 6. This review highlights that rigorous ecological studies in non‐urban, intact ecosystems – with a particular focus on community interactions – are critically needed to accurately project future abundances, economic impacts, and ecosystem effects of temperate forest termites.     

Plankton dynamics under different climate conditions in tropical freshwater systems (a reply to the comment by Sarmento,Amado & Descy, )

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Haemosporidian prevalence,parasitaemia and aggregation in relation to avian assemblage life history traits at different elevations

The transmission of vector-borne protozoa such as parasites of the Order Haemosporida is dependent on both biotic and abiotic factors such as host life history traits and environmental conditions. This study aimed to identify the variables that determine haemosporidian prevalence, parasitaemia and aggregation within the context of elevation and avian life history traits in Central Veracruz, Mexico. We sampled 607 birds from 88 species; we used microscopy and the mtDNA cytochrome b gene to detect parasites. We found an overall prevalence of 32.3%. Haemosporidian prevalence was 21.6% in tropical sub-deciduous forest (at sea level), 38% in tropical deciduous forest (265 m above sea level (asl)), 19.4% in montane cloud forest (1630 m asl), and 51.7% in pine-oak forest (2790 m asl). The prevalence of each parasite genus was strongly influenced by elevation (a proxy of habitat type). Plasmodium showed the highest prevalence at low elevation. Haemoproteus increased in prevalence with elevation. Leucocytozoon displayed the highest prevalence at the highest elevation (pine-oak forest). Haemoproteus spp. and Leucocytozoon spp. prevalences were higher in open cup than in closed nests. Haemoproteus prevalence and haemosporidian parasitaemia were lower in solitary birds than birds with pairing and gregarious behavior. Haemosporidian aggregation decreased with elevation, yielding the significantly lowest values at the pine-oak forest. Elevation distribution patterns of prevalence for each genus were similar to those previously reported in other geographical areas (e.g., South America, Europe).