Conservation of the insect assemblages of the Cape Peninsula biodiversity hotspot

The Cape Peninsula is an area of outstanding biological importance, not only for to its high levels of floristic diversity and endemism, but also for its number of localised endemic invertebrates. Little is known of the spatial distribution of invertebrates across the Peninsula, or how best to conserve them. Sampling by visual searches assisted by aerial and aquatic hand-nets was undertaken throughout the Peninsula. The most important areas for insect diversity on the Peninsula, and associated environmental variables, were determined. The ‘Peninsula effect’ was also investigated. Nine Red Listed species and five new species for the Peninsula were recorded. This high number of Red Listed species (for those few groups that have been assessed) emphasises the biological importance of the Cape Peninsula. Table Mountain had the most Red Listed species, while Cape Point had many species not found in the other areas. Noordhoek Wetland is very important for aquatic Coleoptera. Small hills on the Peninsula are important for overall insect diversity. Elevation, slope, aspect, distance to water and vegetation structure were the most important environmental variables in determining the insect assemblages. The Peninsula effect appears to have no influence on these particular insect assemblages of the Cape Peninsula. The high number of new Peninsula records for well-known taxonomic groups indicates that still little is known of the insect assemblages across the Peninsula. Nevertheless, areas of conservation priority identified in this study are Table Mountain (for Red Listed species), Noordhoek (for aquatic Coleoptera) and Cape Point and the small hills across the Peninsula (for their unique invertebrate assemblages). Conservation of a variety of elevations, including steep and flat areas, all aspects of mountains, as well as both the wet and dry areas, overall will contribute to the conservation of the insects.     

Aquatic biodiversity in the mediterranean region of South Africa

The Cape mediterranean region, part of South Africa’s Cape Floristic Realm (CFR), is recognised for its rich diversity and high degree of endemism of terrestrial vegetation. We review the biodiversity of the aquatic flora and fauna using literature sources and museum data. Geological, palaeohistorical and climate data are examined in relation to the formation of the winter-rainfall regime. Prehistoric humans had minimal impact on the aquatic biotas. Patterns and processes relating to the present-day climate, ecosystem status, distribution and diversity of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates in the CFR are reviewed. The proportion of endemic CFR species relative to the total number of species known from southern Africa is estimated. Observed distribution patterns are evaluated against temperate Gondwana vicariance, old African migrations, the role of the ancient Cape fold mountains and Pangaea. The lack of Pleistocene glaciations in Africa, the oligotrophic nature of the river systems and the palaeohistorical origin and distribution of taxa are considered when assessing reasons for disjunct distribution patterns. Impacts of anthropogenic interference with aquatic ecosystems are evaluated. Fragmented jurisdiction of nature conservation authorities is seen as a problem for attaining adequate conservation of CFR aquatic ecosystems. Systematic conservation planning is under way for the region.     

Conservation of invertebrate biodiversity on a mountain in a global biodiversity hotspot,Cape Floral Region

Mountains present particular challenges for biodiversity conservation. Table Mountain is a significant mountain in a global biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region. It has outstanding angiosperm diversity and endemism. Yet, aerial and foliage invertebrates in the area have been poorly studied, despite their importance as pollinators and predators. These plant and invertebrate assemblages are under great pressure from human disturbance. Aerial and foliage invertebrates were sampled with a range of techniques. Sites were chosen to make comparisons between vegetation structure and type, elevation and aspect. In total, 216 species from 63 families and 14 orders were recorded. Vegetation structure (fynbos or forest) and elevation were the most important environmental variables for both aerial and foliage invertebrates. Peak time for aerial invertebrate abundance was spring and summer in the fynbos and spring in the forests, while the foliage invertebrates showed very little seasonal variation. There was no correlation between the diversity of aerial and foliage invertebrates. When these results were compared with others on epigaeic invertebrates, it became clear that epigaeic and aerial invertebrates are not correlated, while epigaeic and foliage invertebrates were only partially correlated, but not sufficiently so to consider one as a reliable estimator of the other. The management pointer from this study is that sites at all elevations are vital for the conservation of biodiversity on Table Mountain. Both the aerial and epigaeic/foliage invertebrate assemblages will need to be monitored separately to maintain the mountain’s conservation status.     

Annelids, arthropods or molluscs are suitable as surrogate taxa for selecting conservation reserves in estuaries

The urgent need to conserve aquatic biodiversity and the lack of spatial data on biodiversity has motivated conservation planners and researchers to search for more readily obtainable information that could be used as proxies or surrogates. The surrogate taxon approach shows promise in some aquatic environments (e.g. intertidal) but not others (e.g. coral reefs, temperate rocky reefs). Estuaries are transitional environments at the land–sea junction with a unique biodiversity, but are the most threatened of aquatic environments because of high levels of human use. The comparatively small numbers of conservation reserves means that estuarine biodiversity is poorly protected. Selecting additional conservation reserves within estuaries would be facilitated by the identification of a suitable surrogate that could be used in conservation planning. In one estuary in Southeast Australia, we evaluated separately the effectiveness of annelids, arthropods, and molluscs as surrogates for predicting the species richness, abundance, assemblage variation, and summed irreplaceability of other species and for coincidentally representing other species in networks of conservation reserves selected for each surrogate. Spatial patterns in the species richness and assemblage variation (but not summed irreplaceability) of each surrogate were significantly correlated with the spatial patterns of other species. The total abundance of annelids and the total abundance of arthropods were each significantly correlated with the total abundances of other species. Networks of conservation reserves selected to represent each surrogate performed significantly better than random selection in representing other species. The greatest number of non-surrogate species was coincidentally included in reserves selected for the group of mollusc species. We conclude that annelids and arthropods are effective surrogate taxa for identifying spatial variation in several measures of conservation value (species richness, abundance, assemblage variation) in estuaries. We also conclude that spatial data on annelids, arthropods or molluscs can be used to select networks of conservation reserves in estuaries. The demonstrated effectiveness of these surrogates should facilitate future conservation planning within estuaries.     

Impacts of urbanization in a biodiversity hotspot: Conservation challenges in Metropolitan Cape Town

The City of Cape Town (City) covers 2460 km² in the southwestern corner of the Cape Floristic Region biodiversity hotspot. Established in 1654, by 1700 there were no animals larger than 50 kg within 200 km of the City. However, apart from an appreciation that timber and firewood were becoming scarce, it was only in the 1930s that the first farm near Cape Point was set aside for conservation. Table Mountain was declared a National Monument in 1958, while it was largely covered by pine and gum plantations. Conservation of the montane areas thereafter expanded, whereas the lowlands were largely ignored, except for a few bird sanctuaries. Only in 1982 was the plight of the lowlands highlighted. Although ad hoc conservation planning was undertaken subsequently, 1997 saw the first priority categorization and conservation plan. The current situation is perilous: a huge effort will be required to meet basic conservation targets for the lowland vegetation types and threatened species. Local and international partners and funders will be key to achieving this. In eight of the City's 19 national vegetation types the minimum conservation targets are not achievable. Of the 3250 plant species estimated to occur in the City, 13 are extinct and 319 are threatened according to the IUCN Red List: this is 18% of the threatened Red List species in South Africa. Now for the first time, implementation is being attempted holistically across the metropole with discussion between internal City and external stakeholders to implement the conservation plan. However, the interim plans towards achieving this — that 60% of the unproclaimed target is secured by 2014, requires that over 40 km² be conserved per annum. This leaves 340 km² that should be secured by 2020 when projections from City spatial growth indicate that the last critical remnants will be urbanized.     

Identifying key conservation sites for the reptiles of the Tandilia mountains in Pampas highlands

Reptile populations are facing a global decline as a consequence of anthropic disturbs. For its conservation, it is necessary to know its geographical distribution and the main factors influencing it. Tandilia Mountains are located in the centre of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. These mountains contain high biodiversity and several endemic species, but the current Natural Protected Areas network covers a low area of ​​0.12 %. In this work, we modelled the geographic distribution of reptiles in the Tandilia Mountains to: a) explore the environmental factors affecting the distribution of reptiles on the highland grasslands of the Tandilia Mountain System and (b) identify the key biodiversity areas. We used ten environmental variables and several sources of records (fieldwork, scientific literature, museum collections, and an online database) to model the distribution of each reptile species. The best sites to propose natural reserves were determined in Zonation software. We determined the representativeness of the current system of Natural Protected Areas in the Tandilia Mountain range by overlapping the sites with the Zonation results. We obtained 20 species distribution models with two general patterns: continuous and patched. In most species, the two most informative variables were growing degree-days below 0 °C and precipitation of the wettest quarter. The current system of Natural Protected Areas of the Tandilia Mountains covers 0.35 % of the conservation priority sites (4341 km²) and therefore is insufficient in protecting reptile biodiversity.     

The biogeography of the Anura of sub-equatorial Africa and the prioritisation of areas for their conservation

There is an increasing need for protected areas to conserve biodiversity efficiently. The Anura of sub-equatorial Africa have received little attention, but we quantitatively analyse a database containing presence-only data for anurans of sub-equatorial Africa to determine patterns of distribution and species richness, and discuss the roles of present and past environmental conditions in shaping these patterns. We consider the distribution of areas rich in endemic, range-restricted and Red Data Book (RDB) species to identify areas of significance to conservation. The Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and adjacent area in Mozambique, southeastern Malawi and the northern coast of KwaZulu/Natal are particularly species rich, whereas the southwestern Cape of South Africa and northwestern Zambia exhibit high degrees of endemism. Four major biogeographical sub-regions are identified, which can be further subdivided into provinces. All statistically significant, current environmental factors together account for 52.6% of species richness. Annual maximum rainfall, soil type variation, minimum temperature and range of elevation were all positively correlated with species richness. Thus, both habitat influences and history appear to have influenced patterns of anuran richness in the region. Generally, areas of high species richness coincide with those high in range-restricted, endemic and RDB species. In South Africa, the northeastern coast and southwestern Cape are hypothesised to have been both refugia and centres of speciation. Results suggest that the current reserve system in sub-equatorial Africa is inadequate for the conservation of the full complement of anuran species in the region.     

太行山山地森林群落植物区系与地理格局——基于植物群落清查数据

太行山区位于黄土高原与华北平原之间,是我国生物多样性保护的重要优先区之一.本文以广义太行山涉及的108个行政县域为研究区域,基于太行山山地森林群落植物清查数据,系统分析了太行山山地森林群落的科属特征、区系组成、植物多样性地理格局及其丰富度热点地区.结果表明: 调查的778个样地得到太行山山地森林群落种子植物共计100科447属963种,其中,裸子植物3科7属12种,被子植物97科440属951种,生活型以草本植物占优势(71.1%);科的分布区类型以热带分布(38%)和温带分布(24%)为主,属的分布区类型以温带成分占主导(68.7%);太行山山地森林群落植物多样性的水平分布格局呈由西南向东北逐渐递增的趋势,群落物种多样性与经纬度均呈正相关关系,但不同生活型植物的多样性格局不相一致,草本植物多样性与经纬度呈正相关,而木本植物多样性与经纬度则无明显相关性;在垂直梯度上,太行山山地森林群落植物丰富度呈单峰分布,集中分布在400~1800 m的低中海拔地带,在1000~1200 m丰富度最高;基于群落清查数据绘制太行山山地森林群落植物丰富度分布图,鉴别出小五台山、云台山、太岳山、王屋山、中条山等山地为植物丰富度热点地区,应列入太行山优先保护的重点规划区域.     

Combining environmental niche models,multi-grain analyses,and species traits identifies pervasive effects of land use on butterfly biodiversity across Italy

Understanding how species respond to human activities is paramount to ecology and conservation science, one outstanding question being how large-scale patterns in land use affect biodiversity. To facilitate answering this question, we propose a novel analytical framework that combines environmental niche models, multi-grain analyses, and species traits. We illustrate the framework capitalizing on the most extensive dataset compiled to date for the butterflies of Italy (106,514 observations for 288 species), assessing how agriculture and urbanization have affected biodiversity of these taxa from landscape to regional scales (3–48 km grains) across the country while accounting for its steep climatic gradients. Multiple lines of evidence suggest pervasive and scale-dependent effects of land use on butterflies in Italy. While land use explained patterns in species richness primarily at grains ≤12 km, idiosyncratic responses in species highlighted “winners” and “losers” across human-dominated regions. Detrimental effects of agriculture and urbanization emerged from landscape (3-km grain) to regional (48-km grain) scales, disproportionally affecting small butterflies and butterflies with a short flight curve. Human activities have therefore reorganized the biogeography of Italian butterflies, filtering out species with poor dispersal capacity and narrow niche breadth not only from local assemblages, but also from regional species pools. These results suggest that global conservation efforts neglecting large-scale patterns in land use risk falling short of their goals, even for taxa typically assumed to persist in small natural areas (e.g., invertebrates). Our study also confirms that consideration of spatial scales will be crucial to implementing effective conservation actions in the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. In this context, applications of the proposed analytical framework have broad potential to identify which mechanisms underlie biodiversity change at different spatial scales.     

Water beetles associated with reservoirs on Table Mountain,Cape Town: implications for conservation

Table Mountain maintained internationally high global conservation priority with respect to the aquatic Coleoptera. The study site displayed an overall 77% endemism with 65% of species provisionally of high IUCN international conservation status. Reservoirs were shown to have a dramatic negative impact on the endemic and endangered water beetles of Table Mountain. This comprised of an overall species loss of 73%, all endemics, and a 64% loss of high conservation status species in the Hydraenidae, Dryopidae and Elmidae. Further hydrological alteration in the region was not recommended and the necessary inclusion of water beetles in future EIA assessments stipulated. The necessity for bioinventory methodology in addition to standard netting methodology was conclusively illustrated. A Balanced Scorecard approach to conservation decisions based on species level data including appropriate bioinventory survey methodology, recent survey data, IUCN status, and levels of endemism was proposed. The differentiation of species communities with altitude produced a division between upland and lowland communities on Table Mountain. Distinct differences between the reservoir impacted and natural upland water beetle communities were demonstrated.     

Do hotspots fall within protected areas? A Geographic Approach to Planning analysis of regional freshwater biodiversity

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基于C-Plan规划软件的生物多样性就地保护优先区规划——以中国东北地区为例

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The effects of urbanization on pollinators and pollination: A meta-analysis

Urbanization is increasing worldwide, with major impacts on biodiversity, species interactions and ecosystem functioning. Pollination is an ecosystem function vital for terrestrial ecosystems and food security; however, the processes underlying the patterns of pollinator diversity and the ecosystem services they provide in cities have seldom been quantified. Here, we perform a comprehensive meta-analysis of 133 studies examining the effects of urbanization on pollinators and pollination. Our results confirm the widespread negative impacts of urbanization on pollinator richness and abundance, with Lepidoptera being the most affected group. Furthermore, pollinator responses were found to be trait-specific, with below-ground nesting and solitary Hymenoptera, and spring flyers more severely affected by urbanization. Meanwhile, cities promote non-native pollinators, which may exacerbate conservation risks to native species. Surprisingly, despite the negative effects of urbanization on pollinator diversity, pollination service measured as seed set is enhanced in non-tropical cities likely due to abundant generalists and managed pollinators therein. We emphasize that the richness of local flowering plants could mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization on pollinator diversity. Overall, the results demonstrate the varying magnitudes of multiple moderators on urban pollinators and pollination services and could help guide conservation actions for biodiversity and ecosystem function for a sustainable future.     

The forest communities of Table Mountain,South Africa

Summary The forest communities of Table Mountain have been classified using the Braun-Blanquet technique together with numerical analysis. Three major communities, termed associations, have been recognised. Some of these associations have been subdivided. Each community has been described in terms of floristic, structural and environmental factors. The dominant factors affecting the distribution of forest communities appear to be moisture conditions, soil rockiness and soil depth. Information from other South-Western Cape forest areas is discussed. The forests from Table Mountain are similar to these.However, two forest communities are not found on the Cape Peninsula and extensive areas of Cassine dominated forest on deep soils referred to as the Scolopia mundii — Cassine capensis varlant do not appear to be foun outside Orange Kloof.Nomenclature follows that used in the Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town.The authors wish to thank the Course III Botany classes of 1974 and 1975 for assisting in collecting some of the field data, and the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and Smuts Scholarship Board for some financial assistance (B. M. Campbell).     

Unravelling the correlates of species richness and ecological uniqueness in a metacommunity of urban pond insects

City ponds have the potential to harbour a rich biodiversity of aquatic insects despite being located in an urban landscape. However, our current knowledge on the correlates of pond biodiversity is limited and even less is known about the factors that influence the ecological uniqueness of urban ponds. The multiple environmental gradients, at different spatial scales, that may affect biodiversity and ecological uniqueness of urban ponds can thus be seen both as an opportunity and as a challenge for a study. In this study, we aimed to fill this gap by focusing on aquatic insect assemblages in 51 ponds in the Swedish city of Stockholm, using a metacommunity perspective. We found that species richness was primarily determined by the density of aquatic insects, water depth and proportion of buildings around the pond. The uniqueness of ponds was estimated as local contributions to beta diversity (LCBD), and it was primarily related to the proportion of arable land and industry around the ponds. With regard to the metacommunity we found two interesting patterns. First, there was a negative relationship between richness and LCBD. Second, biodiversity was spatially independent, suggesting that spatially-patterned dispersal did not structure species richness or LCBD. These last two patterns are important when considering conservation efforts of biodiversity in city ponds. We hence suggest that the conservation of insect biodiversity in urban pond should consider the surroundings of the ponds, and that high-richness ponds are not necessarily those that require most attention because they are not ecologically the most unique.     

中国生物多样性保护优先区域生物多样性调查和评估方法

我国高度重视生物多样性保护,而开展本底调查是生物多样性保护的基础。但以往研究对苔藓、生物多样性相关传统知识等关注不够,而且调查大部分集中在生物多样性丰富区域。随着我国社会经济的快速发展,全国土地利用格局和生态环境发生了巨大变化,已有的部分调查成果数据与实际情况不符,难以满足我国生物多样性保护管理需求,因此亟待组织开展全国生物多样性调查与评估工作。在整理历史和现有生物多样性调查技术的基础上,推荐采用网格法开展全国生物多样性调查,按照10 km×10 km分辨率,将全国划分为97109个调查网格;制定了陆生高等植物、植被、陆生哺乳动物、鸟类、两栖类和爬行类、昆虫、大型真菌、内陆鱼类、内陆浮游生物、内陆大型底栖无脊椎动物、内陆周丛藻类以及生物多样性相关传统知识12个类群县域生物多样性调查评估技术规定;建立了全国统一、动态更新、信息共享的生物多样性数据库和信息化管理平台。从调查内容规范、评估指标体系和技术要求等方面探讨了陆域生态系统与物种调查、重点河流水生生物调查、重点物种调查、生物多样性相关传统知识调查技术方法,并构建生物多样性综合评估指标体系,规范了生物多样性保护优先区域生物多样性调查和评估。技术方法在横断山南、武陵山、太行山、西双版纳等生物多样性保护优先区域得到应用,同时北京、江苏、浙江和湖北等省份和祁连山、武夷山等区域也采用该技术体系开展调查,网格法得到逐步推广,并获得大量的生物多样性基础数据,为我国生物多样性保护和可持续利用、生物多样性公约履约等提供了基础数据。     

Diversity and distribution of aquatic insects in Southern Brazil wetlands: implications for biodiversity conservation in a Neotropical region

The selection of priority areas is an enormous challenge for biodiversity conservation. Some biogeographic methods have been used to identify the priority areas to conservation, and panbiogeography is one of them. This study aimed at the utilization of panbiogeographic tools, to identify the distribution patterns of aquatic insect genera, in wetland systems of an extensive area in the Neotropical region (approximately 280 000km2), and to compare the distribution of the biogeographic units identified by the aquatic insects, with the conservation units of Southern Brazil. We analyzed the distribution pattern of 82 genera distributed in four orders of aquatic insects (Diptera, Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera) in Southern Brazil wetlands. Therefore, 32 biogeographic nodes corresponded to the priority areas for conservation of the aquatic insect diversity. Among this total, 13 were located in the Atlantic Rainforest, 16 in the Pampa and three amongst both biomes. The distribution of nodes showed that only 15% of the dispersion centers of insects were inserted in conservation units. The four priority areas pointed by node cluster criterion must be considered in further inclusions of areas for biodiversity conservation in Southern Brazil wetlands, since such areas present species from different ancestral biota. The inclusion of such areas into the conservation units would be a strong way to conserve the aquatic biodiversity in this region.     

秦岭南坡陕西洋县辖区哺乳动物物种多样性的空间分布格局

物种多样性的空间分布格局一直是生态学和生物地理学研究的一个热点问题。山地生态系统的生境异质性和物种多样性高, 适合研究物种多样性空间分布格局及其相关机制。2016年11月至2017年11月, 本研究选取秦岭南坡陕西洋县辖区作为研究区域, 采用样线法、红外相机法和笼捕/夹捕法, 系统分析了8目21科48种哺乳动物物种多样性的空间分布格局。研究结果发现秦岭南坡洋县辖区哺乳动物物种丰富度的空间分布格局大致是中南部低, 北部和东部高; 物种多样性指数大致是中南部和北部低, 东部高。啮齿类动物和非啮齿类动物的空间分布格局存在差异。哺乳动物物种丰富度和多样性指数的垂直分布格局都符合中峰模式, 但啮齿类动物和非啮齿类动物间存在差异。最优线性模型结果表明, 研究地区哺乳动物物种多样性的空间分布格局受到多种环境因素的共同影响。其中, 年均温与物种多样性的相关性最强, 在6个最优线性模型中贡献都是最大。综上, 秦岭南坡洋县辖区中高海拔区域的物种多样性较高, 应加强对中高海拔地区的保护, 以维系该区域较高的生物多样性。     

Why is the Cape Peninsula so rich in plant species? An analysis of the independent diversity components

With 2285 species of higher plants crammed into 471 km², the flora of South Africa's Cape Peninsula is exceptionally rich. Similar sized areas in other Mediterranean-climate region biodiversity hot-spots support between 4.7 and 2.7 times fewer species. The high plant species richness of the Cape Peninsula is due to the exceptionally high turnover between moderately species-rich sites in different habitats (beta diversity) and between sites in similar habitats along geographical gradients (gamma diversity). Highest beta diversity, encompassing almost complete turnover, was recorded along soil fertility gradients. Although similar patterns for these independent components explain the richness of other regions in the Cape Floristic Region, it is the very long and steep habitat gradients of the Cape Peninsula that makes this region exceptionally rich. Furthermore, the flora is characterized by a high degree of rarity, a phenomenon that undoubtedly influences the turnover. Future research should focus on developing a biological and ecological understanding of the different forms of rarity and integrating this into management plans for the maintenance of biodiversity.     

Supporting conservation with biodiversity research in sub-Saharan Africa’s human-modified landscapes

Protected areas (PAs) cover 12 % of terrestrial sub-Saharan Africa. However, given the inherent inadequacies of these PAs to cater for all species in conjunction with the effects of climate change and human pressures on PAs, the future of biodiversity depends heavily on the 88 % of land that is unprotected. The study of biodiversity patterns and the processes that maintain them in human-modified landscapes can provide a valuable evidence base to support science-based policy-making that seeks to make land outside of PAs as amenable as possible for biodiversity persistence. We discuss the literature on biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa’s human-modified landscapes as it relates to four broad ecosystem categorizations (i.e. rangelands, tropical forest, the Cape Floristic Region, and the urban and rural built environment) within which we expect similar patterns of biodiversity persistence in relation to specific human land uses and land management actions. Available research demonstrates the potential contribution of biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes within all four ecosystem types and goes some way towards providing general conclusions that could support policy-making. Nonetheless, conservation success in human-modified landscapes is hampered by constraints requiring further scientific investment, e.g. deficiencies in the available research, uncertainties regarding implementation strategies, and difficulties of coexisting with biodiversity. However, information currently available can and should support efforts at individual, community, provincial, national, and international levels to support biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes.