The influence of pH on the EPR and redox properties of cytochrome c oxidase in detergent solution and in phospholipid vesicles

The EPR signals of oxidized and partially reduced cytochrome oxidase have been studied at pH 6.4, 7.4, and 8.4. Isolated cytochrome oxidase in both non-ionic detergent solution and in phospholipid vesicles has been used in reductive titrations with ferrocytochrome c.The g values of the low- and high-field parts of the low-spin heme signal in oxidized cytochrome oxidase are shown to be pH dependent. In reductive titrations, low-spin heme signals at g 2.6 as well as rhombic and nearly axial high-spin heme signals are found at pH 8.4, while the only heme signals appearing at pH 6.4 are two nearly axial g 6 signals. This pH dependence is shifted in the vesicles.The g 2.6 signals formed in titrations with ferrocytochrome c at pH 8.4 correspond maximally to 0.25–0.35 heme per functional unit (aa₃) of cytochrome oxidase in detergent solution and to 0.22 heme in vesicle oxidase. The total amount of high-spin heme signals at g 6 found in partially reduced enzyme is 0.45–0.6 at pH 6.4 and 0.1–0.2 at pH 8.4. In titrations of cytochrome oxidase in detergent solution the g 1.45 and g 2 signals disappear with fewer equivalents of ferrocytochrome c added at pH 8.4 compared to pH 6.4.The results indicate that the environment of the hemes varies with the pH. One change is interpreted as cytochrome a₃ being converted from a high-spin to a low-spin form when the pH is increased. Possibly this transition is related to a change of a liganded H₂O to OH^? with a concomitant decrease of the redox potential. Oxidase in phosphatidylcholine vesicles is found to behave as if it experiences a pH, one unit lower than that of the medium.     

DNA or RNA Oligonucleotide 2′-Hydrazides for Chemoselective Click-Type Ligation with Carbonyl Compounds

An efficient method for the synthesis of DNA or RNA oligonucleotide 2′-hydrazides is described. Fully deprotected oligonucleotides containing a hydrazide group at the 2′-position of a uridine residue were obtained by a novel two-step procedure: periodate cleavage of an oligonucleotide with 1,2-diol group followed by conversion of the aldehyde to hydrazide with an extended linker arm using a homobifunctional reagent succinic dihydrazide and NaBH₃CN. The resulting oligonucleotide 2′-hydrazides were efficiently conjugated by a click-type reaction at acidic pH to aliphatic or aromatic aldehydes with or without NaBH₃CN reduction to afford novel 2′-conjugates.     

Phospholipid membranes affect tertiary structure of the soluble cytochrome b5 heme-binding domain

The influence of charged phospholipid membranes on the conformational state of the water-soluble fragment of cytochrome b₅ has been investigated by a variety of techniques at neutral pH. The results of this work provide the first evidence that aqueous solutions with high phospholipid/protein molar ratios (pH 7.2) induce the cytochrome to undergo a structural transition from the native conformation to an intermediate state with molten-globule like properties that occur in the presence of an artificial membrane surface and that leads to binding of the protein to the membrane. At other phospholipid/protein ratios, equilibrium was observed between cytochrome free in solution and cytochrome bound to the surface of vesicles. Inhibition of protein binding to the vesicles with increasing ionic strength indicated for the most part an electrostatic contribution to the stability of cytochrome b₅vesicle interactions at pH 7.2. The possible physiological role of membrane-induced conformational change in the structure of cytochrome b₅ upon the interaction with its redox partners is discussed.     

Annexin A4 binding to anionic phospholipid vesicles modulated by pH and calcium

Annexin A4 belongs to a class of Ca(2+)-binding proteins for which different functions in the cell have proposed, e.g. involvement in exocytosis and in the coagulation process. All these functions are related to the ability of the annexins to bind to acidic phospholipids. In this study the interaction of annexin A4 with large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) prepared from phosphatidylserine (PS) or from phosphatidic acid (PA) is investigated at neutral and acidic pH. Annexin A4 strongly binds to either lipid at acidic pH, whereas at neutral pH only weak binding to PA and no binding to PS occurs. Addition of 40 microM Ca(2+) leads to a strong binding to the lipids also at neutral pH. This is caused by the different electric charge of the protein below and above its isoelectric point. Binding of annexin A4 induces dehydration of the vesicle surface. The strength of the effects is much greater at pH 4 than at pH 7.4. At pH 7.4 annexin A4 reduces the Ca(2+)-threshold concentration necessary to induce fusion of PA LUV. The Ca(2+) induced fusion of PS LUV is not affected by annexin A4 at pH 7.4. At pH 4 annexin A4 induces fusion of either vesicles without Ca(2+). Despite the low binding extents at neutral pH annexin A4 induces a Ca(2+) independent leakage of PS- or PA-LUV. The leakage extent is increased at acidic pH. From the data two suggestions are made: (1) At pH 4 annexin A4 (at least partially) penetrates into the bilayer in contrast to the preferred location at the vesicle surface at neutral pH. The conformation of annexin A4 seems to be different at the two conditions. (2) At neutral pH, Annexin A4 seems to be able to bind two PA vesicles simultaneously; however, only one PS vesicle at the same time. This behavior might be related to a recently described double Ca(2+) binding site, which appears to be uniquely suited for PS.     

Periodate oxidation and alkaline degradation of heparin-related glycans

Heparin, heparan sulphate, and various derivatives thereof have been oxidised with periodate at pH 3.0 and 4° and at pH 7.0 and 37°. Whereas oxidation under the latter conditions destroys all of the nonsulphated uronic acids, treatment with periodate at low pH and temperature causes selective oxidation of uronic acid residues. The reactivity of uronic acid residues depends on the nature of neighbouring 2-amino-2-deoxyglucose residues. d-Glucuronic acid residues are susceptible to oxidation when flanked by N-acetylated amino sugars, but resistant when adjacent residues are either unsubstituted or N-sulphated. L-Iduronic acid residues in their natural environment (2-deoxy-2-sulphoamino-d-glucose) are resistant to oxidation, whereas removal of N-sulphate groups renders a portion of these residues periodate-sensitive. Oxidised uronic acid residues in heparin-related glycans may be cleaved by alkali, producing a series of oligosaccharide fragments. Thus, periodate oxidation-alkaline elimination provides an additional method for the controlled degradation of heparin.     

Daunorubicin Derivatives Obtained from Daunorubicin and Nucleoside Dialdehydes

Abstract

Nucleoside dialdehydes were obtained by periodate oxidation of adenosine, cytidine, guanosine, uridine or 6-azauridine in the presence of Dowex (1×8; CH₃COO). Reductive alkylation of daunorubicin with these dialdehydes in the presence of NaBH₃CN produced a series of 3′-deamino-3′-(4-morpholino)daunorubicin or 13-(R, S)-dihydrodaunorubicin derivatives, the latter being mixtures of two diastereomers at 13-C atom. The morpholino-daunorubicin derivatives containing nucleic base moieties are less cytotoxic than cyanomorpholino-daunorubicin, morpholino-daunorubicin and even than the parent antibiotic.     

NMR kinetic studies of the ionophore X-537A-mediated transport of manganous ions across phospholipid bilayers

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has been applied as a method for studying manganous ions transport across the membrane of phosphatidylcholine vesicles. The rates of the ionophore X-537A (lasalocid A)-mediated Mn²⁺ transport have been measured as a function of ionophore concentration, pH of the vesicle suspension, and temperature. The translocation was found to occur via a neutral complex composed of one manganous ion bound to two ionized X-537A molecules (Mn X₂). The activation energy for the overall transport process was determined to be 22 ± 5 kcal/mol. Also a pK_a of 5.0 ± 0.2 was determined for the ionophore acid dissociation equilibrium in the vesicle suspension.     

Dissecting the pattern of proton release from partial process involved in ubihydroquinone oxidation in the Q-cycle

A key feature of the modified Q-cycle of the cytochrome bc₁ and related complexes is a bifurcation of QH₂ oxidation involving electron transfer to two different acceptor chains, each coupled to proton release. We have studied the kinetics of proton release in chromatophore vesicles from Rhodobacter sphaeroides, using the pH-sensitive dye neutral red to follow pH changes inside on activation of the photosynthetic chain, focusing on the bifurcated reaction, in which 4H⁺are released on complete turnover of the Q-cycle (2H⁺/ubiquinol (QH₂) oxidized). We identified different partial processes of the Q_o-site reaction, isolated through use of specific inhibitors, and correlated proton release with electron transfer processes by spectrophotometric measurement of cytochromes or electrochromic response. In the presence of myxothiazol or azoxystrobin, the proton release observed reflected oxidation of the Rieske iron?sulfur protein. In the absence of Q_o-site inhibitors, the pH change measured represented the convolution of this proton release with release of protons on turnover of the Q_o-site, involving formation of the ES-complex and oxidation of the semiquinone intermediate. Turnover also regenerated the reduced iron-sulfur protein, available for further oxidation on a second turnover. Proton release was well-matched with the rate limiting step on oxidation of QH₂ on both turnovers. However, a minor lag in proton release found at pH?7 but not at pH?8 might suggest that a process linked to rapid proton release on oxidation of the intermediate semiquinone involves a group with a pK in that range.     

Transmembrane pH gradients and functional heterogeneity in reconstituted vesicle systems

The pH-sensitive, membrane impermeant fluorescence probes 8-hydroxy-1,3,6-pyrenetrisulfonate (pyranine; pK_a = 7.2) and 1-naphthol-3,6-disulfonate (Naps pK_a = 8.2) can be simultaneously entrapped within the intravesicular aqueous compartment of unilamellar vesicles and reconstituted proteoliposomes, where they function as reliable reporters of the intravesicular pH. Because the two probes are sensitive to pH over different but overlapping ranges, the useful monitoring range for the co-trapped probe pair extends from pH 6.5 to 9. In vesicles pre-equilibrated at a given pH and then subjected to a sudden change in external pH, the rate and extent of the subsequent change in internal pH are identical at all times during the re-equilibration, regardless of which probe is used to monitor the change. However, in reconstituted bacteriorhodopsin proteoliposomes, the size of the transmembrane pH gradient generated in the light always appears greater when pyranine is used to monitor internal pH. This discrepancy can most readily be understood in terms of heterogeneity in the vesicle suspension, with at least two populations of vesicles, one active in proton and one inactive. A simple algorithm was developed which generates, from the observed internal pH changes for two probes of different pK_a, the percentage of vesicles which are inactive, as well as the actual internal pH of the active fraction. The applicability of this algorithm was subsequently confirmed using a suspension of vesicles in which the level of heterogeneity was deliberately altered by the addition of various amounts of gramicidin. The apparent transmembrane pH gradient for the vesicle population as a whole decreased with increasing gramicidin, as did the calculated percentage of vesicles able to maintain a pH gradient, while the transmembrane gradient calculated for the active vesicle fraction only was essentially unaffected by gramicidin.     

Proton transport through influenza A virus M2 protein reconstituted in vesicles

Influenza A virus M2 protein is known to form acid-activated, proton-selective, amantadine-sensitive channels. We directly measured proton uptake in vesicles containing reconstituted M2 by monitoring external pH after addition of valinomycin to vesicles with 100-fold-diluted external [K⁺]. External pH typically increased by a few tenths of a pH unit over a few minutes after valinomycin addition, but proton uptake was not significantly altered by acidification. Under neutral conditions, external addition of 1 mM amantadine produced a reduction in flux consistent with randomly ordered channels; however, experimental variation is high with this method and the block was not statistically significant. Amantadine block was reduced at pH 5.4. In accord with Lin and Schroeder's study of reconstituted M2 using a pH-sensitive dye to monitor intravesicular pH, we conclude that bath pH weakly affects or does not significantly affect proton flow in the pH range 5.4-7.0 for the reconstituted system, contrary to results from electrophysiological studies. Theoretical analysis of the relaxation to Donnan equilibrium utilized for such vesicle uptake assays illuminates the appropriate timescale of the initial slope and an important limitation that must be placed on inferences about channel ion selectivity. The rise in pH over 10 s after ionophore addition yielded time-averaged single-channel conductances of 0.35 ± 0.20 aS and 0.72 ± 0.42 aS at pH 5.4 and 7.0, respectively, an order of magnitude lower than previously reported in vesicles. Assuming complete membrane incorporation and tetramerization of the reconstituted protein, such a low time-averaged conductance in the face of previously observed single-channel conductance (6 pS at pH 3) implies an open channel probability of 10⁻⁶-10⁻⁴. Based on leakage of potassium from M2-containing vesicles, compared to protein-free vesicles, we conclude that M2 exhibits ∼10⁷ selectivity for hydrogen over potassium.     

Modification of α‐Amylase by Sodium Alginate

Sodium alginate, activated by periodate oxidation, was covalently linked to porcine pancreatic α‐amylase via reductive alkylation with NaBH₄. The enzyme‐polymer conjugate, purified by gel filtration on Fractogel EMD BioSEC (S), retained about 50% of the native specific amylolytic activity. The sugar content was estimated to be 712 mol of monosaccharides per mol of enzyme protein. An average of 11 amino groups out of 21 groups from α‐amylase were modified with the polysaccharide. The functional stability was improved for α‐amylase after conjugation with sodium alginate. In comparison with the native enzyme, the thermostability of α‐amylase was increased by this modification. In addition, the stability in the range of pH 5.0–11.0 was improved for the modified enzyme. The conjugate was also more resistant to denaturation by 0.3% sodium dodecylsulphate, retaining about 10% of its initial activity after 120 min of incubation. The formation of stabilizing salt bridges in the protein surface of the α‐amylase‐polysaccharide complex was confirmed by FT‐IR spectrometry. Attending to the results obtained, we conclude that the covalent attachment of the anionic polysac‐charide sodium alginate to the enzymes might be a useful and non‐expensive method for improving the stabilization of these biocatalysts under various denaturing conditions.     

Charged hybrid block copolymer-lipid-cholesterol vesicles: pH,ionic environment,and composition dependence of phase transitions

The impacts of pH, salt concentration (expressed as Debye length), and composition on the phase behavior of hybrid block copolymer-lipid-cholesterol bilayers incorporating carboxyl-terminated poly(butadiene)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) copolymer (PBdPEO1800^(?)) or/and non-carboxyl-terminated PBdPEO (PBdPEO1800 or/and PBdPEO950), egg sphingomyelin (egg SM), and cholesterol were examined using fluorescence spectroscopy of laurdan. Laurdan emission spectra were decomposed into three lognormal curves as functions of energy. The ratio of the area of the mid-energy peak to the sum of the areas of all three peaks was evaluated as vesicles were cooled, yielding temperature breakpoint values (T_break) expected to be within the range of the phase transition temperature. T_break values displayed dependence on pH, Debye length, and vesicle composition consistent with an electrostatic repulsion contribution to vesicle phase behavior. Increased pH and Debye length, for which a greater dissociated fraction of PBdPEO1800^(?) and a greater energy of electrostatic repulsion would be expected, resulted in T_break values as much as 10 °C less than at low pH or short Debye lengths. Additionally, at Debye lengths comparable to those at physiologically relevant ionic strength, T_break at pH 5.9 was observed to be slightly higher than at pH 7.0 for vesicles containing 50 mol% PBdPEO1800^(?). Electrostatic effects observed for hybrid vesicles incorporating significant amounts of carboxyl-terminated polymer may have the ability to drive phase separation in response to pH drops—such as those observed after endocytosis—in physiologically relevant conditions, suggesting the utility of such materials for drug delivery.     

Effects of transmembrane potential and pH gradient on the cytochrome c-promoted fusion of mitochondrial mimetic membranes

The present study investigated the effects of ΔΨ and ΔpH (pH gradient) on the interaction of cytochrome c with a mitochondrial mimetic membrane composed of phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and cardiolipin (CL) leading to vesicle fusion. ΔpH generated by lowered bulk pH (pH_out) of PCPECL liposomes, with an internal pH (pH_in) of 8.0, favored vesicle fusion with a titration sigmoidal profile (pK _a?~?6.9). Conversely, ΔpH generated by enhanced pH_in of PCPECL at a pH_out of 6.0 favored the fusion of vesicles with a linear profile. We did not observe a significant amount of liposome fusion when ΔpH was generated by lowered pH_in at a pH_out of 8.0. At bulk acidic pH, ΔΨ generated by Na⁺ gradient also favored cyt c-promoted vesicle fusion. At acidic and alkaline pH_out, the presence of ΔpH and ΔΨ did not affect cytochrome c binding affinity measured by pyrene quenching. Therefore, cytochrome c-mediated PC/PE/CL vesicle fusion is dependent of ionization of the protein site L (acidic pH) and the presence of transmembrane potential. The effect of transmembrane potential is probably related to the generation of defects on the lipid bilayer. These results are consistent with previous reports showing that cytochrome c release prior to the dissipation of the ΔΨ_M blocks inner mitochondrial membrane fusion during apoptosis.     

Relative enrichment of P-870 in photosynthetic reaction centers treated with sodium borohydride

Reaction centers from Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides R26 in 0.03% LDAO/0.1 M Tris (initial pH = 8.0) were treated with sodium borohydride. The pH of the reaction center solution was never allowed to exceed 10. Absorption spectra taken at various times show that for approx. 8 h after the first addition of NaBH₄, A₈₆₅ (P-870) and A₇₆₀ diminish very little (no more than 15% loss each), while A₈₀₀ diminishes markedly (45% loss) and a new peak (at 715 nm) grows in at approximately the same rate that A₈₀₀ decays. Separate experiments on the absorption and ¹H-NMR spectra of purified bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) and bacteriopheophytin (BPh), and their respective NaBH₄-reduction products, reveal that A₇₁₅ in NaBH₄-treated reaction centers most likely results from 2a-deoxy-2a-(hydroxy)BPh a, a BPh reduction product. We conclude that at least part of the BChl contributing to A₈₀₀ in the reaction center is reduced at the acetyl group by NaBH₄, apparently with concomitant pheophytinization; if two molecules of BChl contribute equally to that absorption, one of them is reduced. Thus, it is plausible that, of the 6 bacteriochlorin molecules in the reaction center, only one is so configured that its acetyl group is both accessible to the solvent and reactive. In addition to providing a new geometric marker for reaction centers, the NaBH₄-reduction technique should make it possible to decide whether any small spectral change in the 800-nm region can be ruled out as the higher-energy exciton transition of the putative BChl special pair. The technique should be interesting to apply to reaction centers from other organisms, especially Rhodopseudomonas viridis. Because NaBH₄ treatment is unlikely to significantly modify protein structure, investigations of the photochemical properties of the modified reaction centers should be highly informative, especially since reversible bleaching of P-870 in NaBH₄-treated reaction centers now has been observed (Maroti, P., Wraight, C.A. and Pearlstein, R.M., unpublished results).     

Myelin proteolipid protein-induced aggregation of lipid vesicles: efficacy of the various molecular species

The different molecular species that form the myelin proteolipid protein family were isolated by size-exclusion and ion-exchange chromatography in organic solvents and their adhesive properties were tested using a vesicle aggregation assay. Addition of the major proteolipid (PLP) to phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol vesicles caused their clustering as determined by increase in O.D._{450 nm} and by transmission electron microscopy. A small fraction of the aggregated vesicles underwent fusion as determined by resonance energy transfer experiments. Vesicle aggregation by PLP, but not the dissociation of the aggregates, was influenced by pH suggesting that electrostatic interactions are important only during cluster formation. Cleavage of disulfide bonds and methylation of carboxyl groups in PLP greatly reduced the aggregating activity, indicating that the process is dependent on the protein's conformation. Unexpectedly, the proteolipid DM-20 was also effective at inducing the clustering of neutral lipid vesicles. In contrast, three protein fractions comprising the naturally-occurring PLP fragments 1-107/112, 113/125-276 and 129/131-276, bearing different net charges, displayed a much lower activity. In addition, trypsin digestion of PLP resulted in a progressive decrease in the protein's ability to induce vesicle aggregation which coincided with the disappearance of the full-length molecule. Together, these results suggest that even large PLP fragments cannot fulfill the adhesive function of the intact protein.     

Attachment of immunoglobulin to liposomal membrane via protein carbohydrate

A general method has been developed for the covalent attachment of immunoglobulin molecules to the outer layer of liposomal membranes. Aldehyde groups are generated by the mild oxidation with periodate or galactose oxidase of the carbohydrate groups on the constant region of the heavy chain. The oxidized protein is then reacted with a hydrazide group linked to a membrane component. Detailed studies were carried out with monomers of a monoclonal human IgM and two monoclonal murine IgM antibodies specific for the 1-dimethylaminonaphthalene-5-sulfonyl (Dns) group. Two hydrazide-containing hydrophobic reagents were used: N^α-lauroyl, N-Dns-lysine hydrazide and lauric acid hydrazide. The number of protein aldehyde groups formed was assayed by reaction with N-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)-β-alanylglycylglycine hydrazide. Measurement of the intrinsic affinity for Dns-lysine of the processed anti-Dns IgMs demonstrated no substantial impairment of the specific reactivity of the antibody either from the oxidation step or the subsequent attachment to small unilamellar vesicles. The extent of attachment of antibody to small unilamellar vesicles was evaluated with respect to the mol% of hydrazide in the membrane, the duration of the incubation period for the aldehyde-hydrazide reaction and the ratio of protein to hydrazide. The yield of attached protein was significantly dependent on each of these experimental parameters over the ranges tested. Under the most favorable conditions the extent of covalent attachment of IgMs to small unilamellar vesicles was 535 μg of protein per μ mol of phospholipid, corresponding to 0.3 mol% of protein. Under these conditions, 61% of the total protein was associated with the small unilamellar vesicle fraction after fractionation by gel filtration. The attachment of the antibody to small unilamellar vesicles did not destroy the integrity of the vesicles, as demonstrated by the retention of carboxyfluorescein following initial encapsulation during the formation of small unilamellar vesicles.     

Characterization of the isolated calcium-binding vesicles from the green alga Mougeotia scalaris,and their relevance to chloroplast movement

The calcium-binding vesicles from the green alga Mougeotia scalaris were isolated and characterized after staining in vivo by neutral red or rhodamine B. They were found to possess, a protonated group with a pK_a-9.9, typifying phenolic hydroxyl groups; upon titration, both, phenolic compound(s) and vital dye were concomitantly released from the vesicular matrix. A shift in peak absorbance from 450 nm to 540 nm of the vitally stained vesicles indicated that the neutral form of neutral red was bound to the vesicular, matrix as an intermediate form, stabilized via intermolecular hydrogen bonds to the phenolic compound(s). Up to 8.5.10⁹ dye molecules were calculated to be adsorbed to a mean-size vesicle. Analysis of Langmuir adsorption isotherms, indicated that there were two binding sites each for both neutral red and rhodamine B. The isolated vesicles were devoid of calcium, probably because vesicular calcium, bound to the vesicle matrix, was displaced upon dye binding. Dye adsorption to the vesicles in vivo results in substantial inhibition of the reorientational movement of the Mougeotia chloroplast and is explained by dye-mediated disorder of the cellular calcium homoeostasis.Abbreviations NR neutral red - RB rhodamine B - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate This paper is part of the Ph.D. thesis of F. Grolig at Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, FRG     

Lipid interaction of tetanus neurotoxin. A calorimetric and fluorescence spectroscopy study.

The interaction of Tetanus toxin with phospholipid vesicles containing gangliosides (GD1a, GD1b or GT1b) or phosphatidic acid has been investigated at neutral or acidic pH. Change in the thermotropic properties of the vesicles occurred only after addition of the toxin at acidic pH, and led to surface binding or membrane insertion of the protein, dependent on the physical state of the membrane. Most remarkably, toxin addition at acidic pH to dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine vesicles containing GT1b ganglioside, caused formation of ganglioside microdomains on the vesicle surface.     

A Model System for Convenient Fluorescent Labeling of Sugar Chain in Taka-amylase A

A convenient detection of sugar chains in Taka-amylase A (TAA) was done by using 40 μg of enzyme, where a decrease in the UV absorption of NaIO₄ during the periodate oxidation reaction was monitored. The periodate-oxidized sugar chain was labeled with a fluorescent reagent, N-1-ethylenediaminonaphthalene (EDAN), by incubation at pH 9.5 and 30°C for 1 h. The excess EDAN was removed by either quenching with o-phthaladehyde or Bio-Gel P-2 gel adsorption. Among the peptide fragments prepared from the EDAN-labeled TAA, a fluorescent peptide corresponding to the sugar chain was distinguished by the ODS column. These results suggest that periodate oxidation and subsequent fluorescent labeling were useful for the sensitive analysis of various glycoprotein samples.