Laboratory and field evaluation of Beauveria bassiana bait against two cockroach species (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae,Blattidae) in Jinan City,East China

A Beauveria bassiana bait formulation was evaluated for its efficacy in the laboratory and field against German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), and American cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.). The LT₅₀ values were 46 and 119?h, respectively, for B. germanica and P. americana. The cockroach species were lured and killed effectively when linear distance was about 5?m between B. bassiana bait and fresh mouse food. In the field, more than 90% relative decline in density was found 14?d after treatment, which lasted for 90?d. In conclusion, laboratory and field studies demonstrated the high efficacy of a B. bassiana bait formulation against common cockroach species.     

Diphacinone with cholecalciferol for controlling possums and ship rats

ABSTRACT

Potent second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides such as brodifacoum have been used as more effective alternatives to first-generation anticoagulants, such as warfarin. A combination of diphacinone at 0.005% and cholecalciferol at 0.06% produces a slow-acting bait that is effective at killing possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) and rodents. Cage trials with groups of possums and ship rats (Rattus rattus) achieved a mortality of 87% and 86% for possums and ship rats, respectively. Two field trials, each 200 hectares in size, targeting possums, ship rats and mice achieved an average reduction in the abundance of 94% for possums, 94% for ship rats and 80% for mice. The combination of diphacinone and cholecalciferol appears effective and has a favourable risk profile compared with second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides, such as brodifacoum. Approval of this new bait by the New Zealand Environmental Protection Agency was granted in 2018 and final registration obtained from the Ministry of Primary Industries in 2019.     

In situ bait plants as a method for detecting red core in strawberry fields

The spread of strawberry red core root disease (Phytophthora fragariae) from a heavily infested field with a history of 40 yr continuous strawberry growing, to and across an adjacent field where strawberries had never before been grown, was charted by growing bait plants of the highly susceptible alpine strawberry ‘Baron Solemacher’ at the intersections of an 8 m grid. Initially the fungus could not be detected by a soil sampling/glasshouse baiting test or in field grown baits, but after a very wet winter it was detected in the field grown bait plants. Most infections occurred in plants growing in a shallow depression running the length of the field, receiving drainage water from the higher infested site and where there had been standing water for much of the winter. The importance of topography was further demonstrated when baits were planted at commercial densities in two small areas of the field, one adjacent to and the other 18 m distant from the central depression. In the former many plants were infected within 2 months of planting whilst in the latter bait plants remained free of the disease for at least 18 months. The highly susceptible bait plants may be suitable for monitoring the health of commercial propagation stocks; they are easily propagated from seed and as they do not runner there is little hazard to stock purity.     

Comparative toxicity of the two anti-coagulants, coumatetralyl and warfarin, to wild house-mice (Mus musculus L.)

In comparative tests using individually caged wild house-mice (Mus musculus L.) coumatetralyl at 0·05 % in an oatmeal bait-base was found to be as acceptable as plain bait and as acceptable and as toxic as warfarin at 0·025% (the standard dosage). It was less readily accepted at 0·1 or 0·2% in the same bait-base or at 0·05% in a proprietary bait formulation. In further tests with suspected warfarin-resistant mice, coumatetralyl at either 0·05, 0·1 or 0·2% proved more toxic than warfarin at either 0·025, 0·1 or 0·2% respectively. However, some individuals survived 21 days feeding on each of these concentrations of coumatetralyl and, in field and laboratory trials, 0·05 and 0·1% coumatetralyl baits failed to control warfarin-resistant mouse populations after 3–5 weeks. It is concluded that coumatetralyl is a suitable alternative poison to warfarin for use against mice that are susceptible to anti-coagulants but that it is unlikely to control warfarin-resistant populations effectively.     

Efficacy of wax matrix bait stations for Mediterranean fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Tests were conducted that evaluated efficacy of wax matrix bait stations for Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) adults in Guatemala. Bait stations were exposed to outdoor conditions to determine effect of weathering on longevity as indicated by bait station age. Results of laboratory tests found that bait stations with spinosad and ammonium acetate remained effective for at least 31 d compared with pesticide-free controls, although there was some loss of efficacy over time. Percentage mortality for bait station strips with 2% spinosad and 1% ammonium acetate decreased from 100 +/- 0.0% on day 0 to 70 +/- 7.1% after 31 d. Ammonia concentration had little effect on percentage mortality although there was some indication that ammonia concentration affected number of flies observed on the bait stations. Bait station strips (one per cage) were more effective than controls for 6-8 wk when tests were conducted in field cages (3 m diameter x 2 m), but only 2-3 wk when tests were conducted in large (2.5 m high and 6.0 m wide and 7.5 m long) field cages. Longevity was restored when multiple bait stations (3, 6, or 12) were deployed per cage. Bait stations containing methomyl were used for field tests of efficacy for wild flies. Dipped lure bait stations, which were made by coating two edges of commercial ammonium acetate and trimethylamine lures, killed six times more flies than corn cob bait stations dipped into a Nulure/malathion solution. They also killed more flies than pesticide-free controls for 8 wk.     

Hydrogel baits with low‐dose thiamethoxam for sustainable Argentine ant management in commercial orchards

Argentine ants, Linepithema humile (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), are a significant pest in various agricultural systems around the world, and are often associated with outbreaks of phloem‐feeding hemipteran insects. Previous research has evaluated a number of active ingredients and management approaches for controlling Argentine ant populations in agricultural systems, but various regulatory and economic issues have limited the development of effective management tools. Current chemical controls rely on residual sprays or toxic baits, each one posing unique disadvantages that limit their usefulness and efficacy. This study evaluated the potential of water‐storing crystals to effectively deliver liquid baits to Argentine ants. The efficacy of bait crystals containing 0.007% thiamethoxam was first evaluated in laboratory colonies. In addition, field studies were performed in a commercial plum orchard to determine the efficacy of the bait crystals. Protein marking was used within the orchard to examine the distribution of the bait in Argentine ant populations when delivered via water‐storing crystals. Results of laboratory tests showed that water‐storing crystals containing 0.007% thiamethoxam are highly attractive and effective against Argentine ants and require ca. 3–5 days to kill all castes and life stages. Results of the protein‐marking study demonstrated that the percentage of ants carrying protein‐labeled sugar water decreases sharply with increasing distance from the bait station. Bait movement was limited to within 17 m of the bait dispenser. Furthermore, bait efficacy tests in the field showed that Argentine ants can be effectively controlled using liquid thiamethoxam baits deployed via water‐storing crystals. The bait was highly effective and ant densities throughout the baited plots declined by 94 ± 2% within 14 days. The results of this study demonstrate that (1) thiamethoxam is highly effective for Argentine ant control in fruit orchards when used in low concentrations (0.007%), and (2) water‐storing crystals are an effective tool for delivering liquid baits to Argentine ants in agricultural settings.     

Toxicity of cholecalciferol to rats in a multi-species bait

The effectiveness of Feracol?, a possum control paste bait containing 0.8% cholecalciferol, as a rodenticide has been assessed in cage and field trials. Caged rats were provided with toxic bait in choice and no-choice tests. Feracol? was readily eaten when presented as the sole food source or with other food, and was effective at killing rats in both situations. Wild-caught and laboratory rats (n =?35), comprising both ship (Rattus rattus) and Norway rats (R.?norvegicus), were presented with 30 g of Feracol? alone or with an equivalent toxic bait over 48 h. Thirty-four rats died in an average of 4.0 days. Having established that the paste, originally designed for possum control, is also an effective rodenticide for rat control, field trials were initiated with the paste delivered in the field in Philproof? and Striker? bait stations. Monitoring of rat numbers before and after application of toxic bait was undertaken at three trial sites, Lions Hut, Mangaone and Pakoakoa, in Te Urewera National Park in the North Island of New?Zealand. Rat population density was assessed using tracking tunnels. Philproof? bait stations containing 200 g of Feracol? were placed 50 m apart on grids at Lions Hut and monitoring was undertaken at one location per hectare using tracking tunnels. At Mangaone and Pakoakoa, two Striker? bait stations containing 18 g of Feracol? were sited at 25-m intervals on lines 150 m apart, and monitoring was undertaken with five lines of 10 tunnels at 50-m intervals. At Lions Hut, rat tracking decreased from 78% to 3% of tunnels tracked; at Mangaone the reduction was 51% to 0%; and at Pakoakoa from 36% to 0%. These trials demonstrate that Feracol? is effective at reducing both moderate and high concentrations of ship rats in the Philproof? and Striker? bait station delivery systems.     

Utilizing rabbit immunoglobulin G protein for mark-capture studies on the desert subterranean termite, Heterotermes aureus (Snyder)

Mark-capture dispersal studies were conducted to investigate the feasibility of marking the southwestern desert subterranean termite, Heterotermes aureus (Snyder) with rabbit immunoglobulin G (IgG). In turn, short-range dispersal patterns of H. aureus were measured across a 20-m diameter desert landscape at three distinct field locations. Each location consisted of 51 termite feeding stations containing corrugated cardboard. The central feeding station (CFS) at each location was impregnated with rabbit IgG. A circular grid was then constructed around each CFS that consisted of 50 additional unmarked cardboard feeding stations strategically placed around the CFS at distances of 1.5, 2.0, 4.0, 7.0 or 10.0 m. Termites self-marked with rabbit IgG by feeding on the marked bait. The CFS and the 50 peripheral feeding stations were sampled for marked termites twice at each location 17–65 days after the marked bait was placed at the CFS to determine the spatial dispersal patterns of H. aureus within each research grid. Termites that self marked by feeding on rabbit IgG marked bait were detected by an anti-rabbit IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Generally, the CFSs contained the highest frequency of marked termites with 28.0% of the individuals assayed from the CFSs containing rabbit IgG. Over the course of the study, 39 of the unmarked peripheral feeding stations contained at least one marked termite. Of the termites assayed from the peripheral stations (n = 2,955), 124 or 4.2% of the individuals contained the mark. The average distance traveled by the marked termites collected at the peripheral feeding stations was 5.7 ± 3.3 m from the CFSs. We also examined single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from termites collected at each field site. Data indicated that each field site were genetically distinct and therefore non-related termites. We discuss the advantages and limitations of marking termites with rabbit IgG for dispersal studies.     

Factors affecting use of mirex‐poisoned protein baits for control of European wasp (Paravespula germanica) in New Zealand

A bait of canned fish poisoned with 0.5 % or 1 % mirex substantially reduced populations of the European wasp, Paravespula germanica (Fab.), in a part‐cleared, part‐forested resort area in the Marlborough Sounds. In separate baiting regimes, bait was taken for as long as 9 weeks when 0.5% formulation was offered from 5 stations, but when 1 % formulation was offered from 10 and from 15 stations the time was reduced to 5 weeks and 4 weeks respectively. Synthetic and extracted materials tested as baits were unattractive to wasps, but fish baits attractive when fresh could be freeze‐dried without loss of acceptability. Marked wasps were caught up to 1200 m from their nests, and in the control programme 64 ppm mirex was recovered from dry brood comb of a defunct nest 700 m from the nearest bait source. The importance to bait control programmes of data on flight distance and foraging habits, and of the winter survival of colonies with prolonged queen production, is discussed. Some observations on reproductive biology are made in an appendix to the paper.     

Eradication of Norway Rats for Recovery of Seabird Habitat on Langara Island, British Columbia

Introduced Rattus norvegicus (Norway rats) caused the decline of Synthliboramphus antiquus (ancient murrelets) and other seabirds breeding on Langara Island (approximately 3,100 ha), British Columbia. Using funds from the litigation settlement following the Nestucca oil spill, Environment Canada eradicated Norway rats using a technique developed in New Zealand which involved dispensing wax baits containing the anticoagulant brodifacoum at 50 ppm from fixed bait stations. Bait stations were placed every 75 to 100 m on a grid over the entire island (1 station/ha). Rats removed bait for 26 days, after which crews placed baits in protective plastic bags in each bait station. Stations loaded with baits were left on the island and rechecked four times over 2 years, after which bait stations and remaining bait were removed. The eradication succeeded. No signs of rats have been detected on Langara Island and its associated islands since January 1996. No rats were trapped during 1,700 trap‐nights following the poison campaign. Incisor marks of rats were not found on apples or oil‐dipped chew‐sticks. Corvus corax (common ravens) likely suffered greater than 50% mortality from the eradication after apparently gaining access to the poison directly from bait stations and from scavenging rat carcasses. A monitoring and response system is being developed in conjunction with current users of the islands. The success on Langara Island demonstrates how the technique proven on small New Zealand islands of less than 300 ha can be effectively extrapolated to much larger islands.     

Toxicity of baited spinosad formulations to Ceratitis capitata: from the laboratory to the application

GF‐120, a fruit fly bait designed to attract and kill adult fruit flies, was tested in the laboratory and outdoors to determine effects of pre‐treatment diet and bait aging on mortality of Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Two spinosad‐based compounds, GF‐120 and Tracer^® Ultra, had generated two distinctive dose–mortality responds, with LC⁸⁰, LC⁹⁰, and LC⁹⁹ values of 2.4, 2.8, and 4.1 p.p.m., and 255, 479, and 1 143 p.p.m., respectively. The residues of GF‐120 drops, after feeding to the flies, generated 14.3% mortality. The droplet size of the baited spray plays an important role. The toxicity of large drops lasted more than that of small droplets. In the field, exposure to the sun further deteriorates the compound, which lost 50% of its toxicity within 6 days. Disappearance of the compound in the field, due to consumption by various insects, also played a role as 50% of the GF‐120 drops disappeared within 7 days. As mortality was directly related to the amount of insecticide eaten, the effect of GF‐120 depended on the feeding status of the flies: well‐fed flies were almost unaffected compared with starved ones.     

Chemosterilization of the cabbage root fly under field conditions

Removing hedgerow feeding sites from within 40, 80 or 160 m of cauliflower plots, failed to reduce populations of the cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae (Bouché)). Oviposition on the plots was unchanged but the efficiency of yellow water-traps was improved. Traps along-side cleared hedgerows caught more gravid than non-gravid females. In cages, 94% of the eggs laid were sterile when both sterilant baits containing tepa [tris-(i-aziridinyl) phosphine oxide] and hedgerow flowers were present. In the field, maximum egg-sterility rarely exceeded 30% when sterilant was present when natural sterility averaged 8%. Chemosterilization was an inadequate control since sufficient eggs and larvae survived to produce root-damage indices of 49 % in contrast to 2 % on insecticide-treated plants. Most eggs were sterile when chemosterilant baits were placed 0.75 m apart and bait was most effective when placed around the crop during the pre-oviposition period and through the crop at the time of maximum oviposition. Increasing the concentration of tepa failed to increase the effectiveness of the bait but a higher proportion of the eggs laid were sterile on large than on small plots. When chemosterilant treatments were stopped, egg-fertility gradually reverted to the natural level. Protracted immigration, an innate tendency for females to disperse, reductions in the competitiveness of sterile males, and the failure of males to re-disperse once sterilized, appeared to be the main factors limiting the levels of sterility in root-fly populations exposed to tepa-baited lures in the field.     

Behavioural responses of sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, to bait odour

A behavioural bioassay was used to determine the response threshold to squid extract of sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, held at three different feeding regimens. Sablefish responded to the odour of bait by changing swimming activity and turning behaviour. The response threshold to bait odour was influenced by both the amount of food eaten and the duration of food deprivation. The total concentration of amino acids in the bait extract was assumed to determine the response threshold as chemical fractionation studies have shown that this class of compounds is essential for the stimulatory capacities of food extracts. When fed to satiation (9.4% wet body weight) and tested after one day of food deprivation, the mean response threshold to total dissolved free amino acids was 4.4 × 10^?8m (range=7.6 × 10^?8 to 3.6 × 10^?8m ). When fed at 1.6-2.3% wet body weight, the threshold sensitivity had increased to a mean value of 1.8 × 10^?10m (range=8.4 × 10^?10 to 7.0 × 10^?11m ) after one day of food deprivation; after four days of deprivation, the sensitivity had increased even further to a mean value of 1.4 × 10^?11m (range=1.6 × 10^?10 to 1.4 × 10^?12m ). It was also apparent that the intensity of behavioural responses to the bait odour increased with both stimulus concentration and duration of food deprivation. These results suggest that sablefish intensify their search for prey under increased feeding motivation. The active space of a bait source was estimated from the threshold values obtained. Depending on state of food deprivation, rate of chemical release from the bait and the current velocity, maximum lengths of active space within which sablefish would exhibit food searching responses vary from 10 m to several km. Stock assessment based on catch data from baited gear will need techniques that take into account those factors influencing active space for food searching.     

Rabies Management Implications Based on Raccoon Population Density Indexes

An estimate or index of target species density is important in determining oral rabies vaccination (ORV) bait densities to control and eliminate specific rabies variants. From 1997–2011, we indexed raccoon (Procyon lotor) densities 253 times based on cumulative captures on 163 sites from Maine to Alabama, USA, near ORV zones created to prevent raccoon rabies from spreading to new areas. We conducted indexing under a common cage trapping protocol near the time of annual ORV to aid in bait density decisions. Unique raccoons (n = 8,415) accounted for 68.0% of captures (n = 12,367). We recaptured raccoons 2,669 times. We applied Schnabel and Huggins mark-recapture models on sites with ≥3 years of capture data and ≥25% recaptures as context for raccoon density indexes (RDIs). Simple linear relationships between RDIs and mark-recapture estimates supported application of our index. Raccoon density indexes ranged from 0.0–56.9 raccoons/km². For bait density decisions, we evaluated RDIs in the following 4 raccoon density groups, which were statistically different: (0.0–5.0 [n = 70], 5.1–15.0 [n = 129], 15.1–25.0 [n = 31], and >25.0 raccoons/km² [n = 23]). Mean RDI was positively associated with a higher percentage of developed land cover and a lower percentage of evergreen forest. Non-target species composition (excluding recaptured raccoons) accounted for 32.0% of captures. Potential bait competitors accounted for 76.5% of non-targets. The opossum (Didelphis virginiana) was the primary potential bait competitor from 27°N to 44°N latitude, north of which it was numerically replaced by the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). We selected the RDI approach over mark-recapture methods because of costs, geographic scope, staff availability, and the need for supplemental serologic samples. The 4 density groups provided adequate sensitivity to support bait density decisions for the current 2 bait density options. Future improvements to the method include providing random trapping locations to field personnel to prevent trap clustering and marking non-targets to better characterize bait competitors. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society.     

A preliminary study assessing risk to Tasmanian devils from poisoning for red foxes

The recent introduction of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) to Australia's island state of Tasmania represents a major threat to native fauna. In response, the Tasmanian government has begun a fox eradication program using Foxoff®, a bait containing the poison sodium monofluoroacetate (commonly known as 1080). The bait is potentially attractive to native Tasmanian carnivores as well as to foxes. Of particular concern is the endangered Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), which is already at risk from an emergent infectious disease, devil facial tumor disease (DFTD). In both a captive and a field study using non-toxic Foxoff bait, we assessed bait palatability and possible effects of demographics, hunger level, bait age, and bait burial method on the likelihood of bait uptake by Tasmanian devils. Captive devils showed varying interest in the bait, but wild devils appeared to find it uniformly palatable. In the captive study, males and younger, captive-born animals were more likely to excavate and remove bait. Subterranean burial at 15 cm was the most effective deterrent to bait excavation; effectiveness decreased at shallower depths and with surface-level bait buried beneath soil mounds. Our findings suggest that the current fox-baiting campaign may negatively impact individual devils. More extensive study is necessary to assess potential risk at the population level. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Feeding behaviour and trypanosomatid infections of some Tabanids and Culicidae in Colombia

An account is given of the feeding activity and biting behaviour of seven species of Tabanidae taken on a bait cow in the field. Trypanosomatid parasites found in these species, and in Mansonia spp. captured on the same bait, are described.     

Broadcast application of a placebo rodenticide bait in a native Hawaiian forest

This study consisted of three replicates of controlled field trials using a pelletized placebo (Ramik® Green formulated without diphacinone) bait treated with a biological marker and broadcast at three application rates — 11.25, 22.5 and 33.75 kg/ha. We determined that Polynesian (Rattus exulans) and roof rats (Rattus rattus) consumed this bait when broadcast on the ground and assessed the optimal sowage rate to result in maximum exposure of bait to the rats while minimizing bait usage. All Polynesian rats captured in all application rates had eaten the bait. The percentage of roof rats that had eaten the bait increased with application rate, however, 22.5 kg/ha was clearly the optimal application rate. Bait degradation and invertebrate activity was documented and assessed.     

Not such silly sausages: Evidence suggests northern quolls exhibit aversion to toads after training with toad sausages

The invasion of toxic cane toads (Rhinella marina) is a major threat to northern quolls (Dasyurus hallucatus) which are poisoned when they attack this novel prey item. Quolls are now endangered as a consequence of the toad invasion. Conditioned taste aversion can be used to train individual quolls to avoid toads, but we currently lack a training technique that can be used at a landscape scale to buffer entire populations from toad impact. Broad‐scale deployment requires a bait that can be used for training, but there is no guarantee that such a bait will ultimately elicit aversion to toads. Here, we test a manufactured bait – a ‘toad sausage’ – in a small captive trial, for its ability to elicit aversion to toads in northern quolls. To do this, we exposed one group of quolls to a toad sausage and another to a control sausage and compared the quolls' predatory responses when presented with a dead adult toad. Captive quolls that consumed a single toad sausage showed a reduced interest in cane toads, interacting with them for less than half the time of their untrained counterparts and showing reduced Attack behaviour. We also quantified bait uptake in the field, by both quolls and non‐target species. These field trials showed that wild quolls were the most frequent species attracted to the baits, and that approx. 61% of quolls consumed toad‐aversion baits when first encountered. Between 40% and 68% of these animals developed aversion to further bait consumption. Our results suggest that toad‐aversion sausages may be used to train wild quolls to avoid cane toads. This opens the possibility for broad‐scale quoll training with toad aversion sausages: a technique that may allow wildlife managers to prevent quoll extinctions at a landscape scale.     

Efficacy of a fipronil bait in reducing the number of fleas (Oropsylla spp.) infesting wild black‐tailed prairie dogs

Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) is a deadly zoonosis with black‐tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) as a reservoir host in the United States. Systemic insecticides are a promising means of controlling the vectors, Oropsylla spp. fleas, infesting these prairie dogs, subsequently disrupting the Y. pestis cycle. The objective of this study was to conduct a field trial evaluating the efficacy of a grain rodent bait containing fipronil (0.005%) against fleas infesting prairie dogs. The study was performed in Larimer County, CO, where bait was applied to a treatment area containing a dense prairie dog population, three times over a three‐week period. Prairie dogs were captured and combed for fleas during four study periods (pre‐, mid‐, 1^st post‐, and 2^nd post‐treatment). Results indicated the use of bait containing fipronil significantly reduced flea burden. The bait containing fipronil was determined to reduce the mean number of fleas per prairie dog >95% for a minimum of 52 days post‐initial treatment application and 31 days post‐final treatment application. These results suggest the potential for this form of treatment to reduce flea population density on prairie dogs, and subsequently plague transmission, among mammalian hosts across the United States and beyond.     

Translating Bait Preference to Capture Success of Northern White-Tailed Deer

ABSTRACT Wildlife management and research have depended upon trapping as an essential tool for decades. Although deer (Odocoileus spp.) capture by Clover traps remains a basic technique that has changed little over time, researchers use it as an integral part of field operations to support increasingly sophisticated and costly project objectives. Despite reports of deer preference for certain baits, no study has determined if bait preference can effectively increase capture success of free-ranging deer. By supplementing corn bait with salt, peanut butter, or molasses, we tested effects of these bait treatments on capture success of free-ranging white-tailed deer (O. virginianus), as well as levels of nontarget animal disturbance in Clover traps, during February-March 2005. With 1,446 adjusted trap-nights and a 6.5% capture success rate, the probability of capture increased over time and varied among 4 study sites (df = 3, P < 0.005); however, we did not detect a significant effect of bait supplementation on capture success (df = 3, P > 0.8). Nontarget animal activity in the trap varied by site (df = 3, P < 0.001), bait treatment (df = 3, P=0.04), and Julian date (df=3, P < 0.001). Our results are the first to suggest that bait preference may not translate into actual improved capture success of free-ranging deer. Future research should focus on testing additional baits or bait supplements to determine if an increase in trapping success and a minimization of trap disturbance by nontarget species occurs.